Week 11-12 Communication and Leadership PDF

WEEK 11 COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION Communication - The transfer and the understanding of meaning. more than merely imparting meaning; that meaning must also be understood serves five major functions within a group or organization 1\. Management 2\. Feedback 3\. Emotional...

WEEK 11 COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION Communication - The transfer and the understanding of meaning. more than merely imparting meaning; that meaning must also be understood serves five major functions within a group or organization 1\. Management 2\. Feedback 3\. Emotional sharing 4\. Persuasion 5\. Information exchange to facilitate decision making COMMUNICATION PROCESS The steps between a source and a receiver that result in the transfer and understanding of meaning. DIRECTION OF COMMUNICATION Vertical Lateral Formal Small-group Networks Informal Grapevine  MODES OF COMMUNICATION 1\. Oral Communication 2\. Written Communication 3\. Non-verbal Communication CHOICE OF COMMUNICATION CHANNEL  Channel Richness - amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode. PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION Two different ways we process information Factors that influence whether people use an automatic or controlled processing strategy Need for Cognition - personality trait of individuals depicting the ongoing desire to think and learn. Message Characteristics BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION Filtering Selective Perception Information Overload Emotions Language Silence Communication Apprehension Lying CULTURAL FACTORS High-context Cultures - Cultures that rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues in communication. Low-context Cultures - Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication.\ \ Cultural barriers link between communication and employee satisfaction: the less uncertainty, the greater the satisfaction. Distortions, ambiguities, and incongruities between verbal and nonverbal messages all increase uncertainty and reduce satisfaction. Careful attention to the methods and modes for each communication better ensures that the message is properly interpreted by the receiver. Remember that your communication mode will partly determine your communication effectiveness. Obtain feedback to make certain your messages---however they are communicated--- are understood. Remember that written communication creates more misunderstandings than oral communication; communicate with employees through in-person meetings when possible. Make sure you use communication strategies appropriate to your audience and the type of message you're sending. Keep in mind communication barriers such as gender and culture. WEEK 12 LEADERSHIP WHAT IS LEADERSHIP? Leadership - the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals. Organizations need strong leadership and strong management for optimal effectiveness. CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP 1. Leader--member Exchange (LMX) Theory A theory that supports leaders' creation of ingroups and outgroups subordinates with ingroup status will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction. how the leader chooses who falls into each category is unclear, but there is evidence ingroup members have demographic, attitude, and personality characteristics similar to those of their leader or a higher level of competence than outgroup members Leaders and followers of the same gender tend to have closer (higher LMX) relationships than those of different genders. 2. Charismatic Leadership - A leadership theory that states that followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors. Individuals are born with traits that make them charismatic Can also be learned CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP How charismatic leaders influence followers Vision - a long-term strategy for attaining a goal or goals. Vision Statement - a formal articulation of an organization's vision or mission. Effectivity of charismatic leadership depends on the situation People are especially receptive to charismatic leadership when they sense a crisis, when they are under stress, or when they fear for their lives When people are psychologically aroused, they are more likely to respond to charismatic leaders Some personalities are especially susceptible to charismatic leadership individual who lacks self-esteem and questions his or her self-worth is more likely to absorb a leader's direction rather than establish an individual way of leading or thinking Research has shown that individuals who are narcissistic are also higher in some behaviors associated with charismatic leadership 3. Transactional vs. Transformational  Transactional Leaders - leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements. Transformational Leaders - leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests and who are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers. complement each other; they aren't opposing But transformational leadership is more strongly correlated with lower turnover rates, higher productivity, lower employee stress and burnout, and higher employee satisfaction 4. Full Range of Leadership Model - A model that depicts seven management styles on a continuum Laissez-faire Management by exception Contingent reward leadership Individualized consideration Intellectual stimulation Inspirational motivation, and Idealized influence TRAIT THEORIES Trait Theories of Leadership - theories that consider personal qualities and characteristics that differentiate leaders from nonleaders 1. Big Five Framework found extraversion to be the most predictive trait of effective leadership BUT relates more to the way leaders emerge than to their effectiveness effective leaders are not domineering - one study found leaders who scored very high in assertiveness, a facet of extraversion, were less effective than those who were moderately high. although extraversion can predict effective leadership, the relationship may be due to unique facets of the trait. agreeableness and emotional stability seem not to predict leadership conscientiousness and openness to experience may predict leadership, especially leader effectiveness. one recent study indicated that top management teams that were high in conscientiousness positively influenced organizational performance through their leadership. Conscientiousness and extraversion are positively related to leaders' self-efficacy people are more likely to follow someone who is confident he or she is going in the right direction, allowing these leaders to emerge. In sum, leaders who like being around people and are able to assert themselves (extraverted), are disciplined and able to keep commitments they make (conscientious), and are creative and flexible (open) have an apparent advantage when it comes to leadership. 2. Dark Triad Research indicates they're not all bad for leadership A study found that normative (mid-range) scores on the dark side personality traits were optimal, while low (and high) scores were associated with ineffective leadership. Same study suggested that high emotional stability may actually accentuate the ineffective behaviors. higher scores on dark side traits and emotional stability can contribute to leadership emergence research indicate that building self-awareness and self-regulation skills may be helpful for leaders to control the effects of their dark side traits 3. Emotional Intelligence (EI) A core component of EI is empathy Empathetic leaders can sense others' needs, listen to what followers say (and don't say), and read the reactions of others. A leader who effectively displays and manages emotions will find it easier to influence the feelings of followers by expressing genuine sympathy and enthusiasm for good performance, and by showing irritation when employees fail to perform. people high in EI are more likely to emerge as leaders, even after taking cognitive ability and personality into account. two conclusions traits can predict leadership traits do a better job predicting the emergence of leaders and the appearance of leadership than distinguishing between effective and ineffective leaders Trait theories help predict leadership, but don't fully explain leadership. BEHAVIORAL THEORIES Trait research provides a basis for selecting the right people for leadership. Behavioral theories of leadership, in contrast, imply we can train people to be leaders. Behavioral Theories Of Leadership - theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders. 1. Initiating Structure - the extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of employees in the search for goal attainment. includes behavior that attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals a leader high in initiating structure is someone who assigns followers particular tasks, sets definite standards of performance, and emphasizes deadlines. 2. Consideration - the extent to which a person's job relationships are characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees' ideas, and regard for their feelings. a leader high in consideration helps employees with personal problems, is friendly and approachable, treats all employees as equals, and expresses appreciation and support (people-oriented). Conclusions of behavioral theories Mixed - reason for the mixed results from behavioral theory tests may lie partly in follower preferences, particularly cultural preferences 1. Fiedler Contingency Model -- theory that effective groups depend on a proper match between a leader's style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader. individual's leadership style is assumed to be permanent 2. Situational Leadership Theory (SLT) - A contingency theory that focuses on followers' readiness. Successful leadership depends on selecting the right leadership style contingent on the followers' readiness (i.e., the extent to which followers are willing and able to accomplish a specific task) If followers are unable and unwilling to do a task, the leader needs to give clear and specific directions; if they are unable but willing, the leader needs to display a high task orientation to compensate for followers' lack of ability, and high relationship orientation to get them to "buy into" the leader's desires. If followers are able but unwilling, the leader needs to use a supportive and participative style; if they are both able and willing, the leader doesn't need to do much. 3. Path--goal Theory - theory that states that it is the leader's job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization. leader's job to provide followers with information, support, or other resources necessary to achieve goals. Directive leadership yields greater employee satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful than when they are highly structured and well laid out. Directive leadership is likely to be perceived as redundant among employees with high ability or considerable experience. Supportive leadership results in high employee performance and satisfaction when employees are performing structured tasks 4. Leader--participation Model - leadership theory that provides a set of rules to determine the form and amount of participative decision making in different situations. argues that the way the leader makes decisions is as important as what he or she decides. relates leadership behavior to subordinate participation in decision making leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task structure (such as routine, non-routine, or in between) RESPONSIBLE LEADERSHIP 1. Authentic Leaders - Leaders who know who they are, know what they believe in and value, and act on those values and beliefs openly and candidly. Their followers would consider them to be ethical people. primary quality produced by authentic leadership is trust Authentic leaders share information, encourage open communication, and stick to their ideals. Humbleness -- research indicates that leaders who model humility help followers to understand the growth process for their own development 2. Ethical Leadership Socialized Charismatic Leadership - a leadership concept that states that leaders convey values that are other-centered versus self-centered and who role-model ethical conduct. For ethical leadership to be effective, it is not enough for the leader to simply possess high moral character. research review found that role modeling by top leaders positively influenced managers throughout their organizations to behave ethically and fostered a climate that reinforced group-level ethical conduct 3. Servant Leadership - leadership style marked by going beyond the leader's own self-interest and instead focusing on opportunities to help followers grow and develop. Characteristic behaviors include listening, empathizing, persuading, accepting stewardship, and actively developing followers' potential. a study of 126 CEOs found that servant leadership is negatively correlated with the trait of narcissism resulted in higher levels of commitment to the supervisor, self- efficacy, and perceptions of justice, which all were related to OCB. increases team potency (a belief that your team has above-average skills and abilities), which in turn leads to higher levels of group performance. found higher levels of citizenship were associated with a focus on growth and advancement, which in turn was associated with higher levels of creative performance. Other research found that servant leadership and a resulting culture of serving increased employee job performance and creativity, while reducing turnover intentions. POSITIVE LEADERSHIP TRUST Trust - A positive expectation that another will not act opportunistically. The outcomes of trust: encourages taking risks facilitates information sharing trusting groups are more effective enhances productivity Trust development : trust propensity - How likely an employee is to trust a leader. What is trustworthy is culturally influenced Role of time -- observed behavior for a period of time key characteristics lead us to believe a leader is trustworthy Integrity Benevolence Ability MENTORING Mentor - A senior employee who sponsors and supports a lessexperienced employee, called a protégé. May be informal or informal, but formal is more effective research continues to indicate that employers should establish mentoring programs because they benefit both mentors and protégés. found that mentors achieved higher levels of transformational leadership as a result of the process, while organizational commitment and wellbeing increased for both mentors and protégés research suggests the gains are primarily psychological (more than career success) CHALLENGES TO OUR UNDERSTANDING OF LEADERSHIP Attribution Theory of Leadership - leadership theory that says that leadership is merely an attribution that people make about other individuals.  CHALLENGES TO OUR UNDERSTANDING OF LEADERSHIP Substitutes For and Neutralizers of Leadership - suggests that in many situations, leaders' actions are irrelevant. **ONLINE LEADERSHIP** - Identification-based Trust - trust based on a mutual understanding of each other's intentions and appreciation of each other's wants and desires. particularly difficult to achieve without face-toface interaction **SELECTING LEADERS** In general, organizations seem to spend no time on leadership succession and are surprised when their picks turn out poorly. Ph context? - For maximum leadership effectiveness, ensure that your preferences on the initiating structure and consideration dimensions are a match for your work dynamics and culture. - Hire candidates who exhibit transformational leadership qualities and who have demonstrated success in working through others to meet a long-term vision. - Personality tests can reveal candidates higher in extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness, which may indicate leadership readiness. - Hire candidates whom you believe are ethical and trustworthy for management roles and train current managers in your organization's ethical standards in order to increase leadership effectiveness. - Seek to develop trusting relationships with followers because, as organizations have become less stable and predictable, strong bonds of trust are replacing bureaucratic rules in defining expectations and relationships. - Consider investing in leadership training such as formal courses, workshops, and mentoring. WEEK 13 POWER AND POLITICS Power and Leadership Power - capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B so that B acts in accordance with A's wishes. Power vs. Leadership BASES OF POWER 3 bases of Formal Power Formal power is based on an individual's position in an organization. It can come from: Coercive Power - A power base that is dependent on fear of the negative results from failing to comply. Reward Power - Compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable. Legitimate Power - The power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization 2 bases of Personal Power Expert Power - Influence based on special skills or knowledge. Referent Power - Influence based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. Research suggests the personal sources of power are most effective. ROLE OF DEPENDENCE IN POWER RELATIONSHIPS General Dependence Postulate - The greater B's dependence on A, the more power A has over B. Dependence increases when the resource you control is important, scarce, and nonsubstitutable. POWER TACTICS Power Tactics - Ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions. Political Skill - The ability to influence others in such a way as to enhance one's objectives. HOW POWER AFFECTS PEOPLE Does power corrupt? general positive effects Power Variables - some factors can moderate the negative effects of power the toxic effects of power depend on the wielder's personality. the corrosive effect of power can be contained by organizational systems. we have the means to blunt the negative effects of power. the people most likely to abuse power are those who start low in status and gain power. SEXUAL HARRASMENT Broadly defined, Sexual Harassment is any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual's employment and creates a hostile work environment. Ph context How is work-related sexual harassment committed? Work-related Sexual Harassment is committed when: How is education or training-related sexual harassment committed? Education or Training-related Sexual Harassment is committed: Sexual harassment can detrimentally impact individuals and the organization, but it can be avoided. The manager's role is critical: POLITICS: POWER IN ACTION If people convert their power into action, we describe them as being engaged in politics. Politics are not only inevitable, they might be essential too Is it possible for an organization to be politics-free? Yes, IF all members of that organization hold the same goals and interests, if organizational resources are not scarce, and if performance outcomes are completely clear and objective. CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR Factors Contributing to Political Behavior CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR How do people respond to organizational politics? CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR Impression Management (IM) - The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them.  WEEK 14 CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATION CONFLICT Conflict - A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about. Contemporary perspectives differentiate types of conflict based on their effects. Types/Categories of Conflict 1. Task Conflict - Conflict over content and goals of the work. If task and relationship conflict occurred together, task conflict was more likely negative, whereas if task conflict occurred by itself, it was more likely positive. teams of individuals who are high in openness and emotional stability are better able to turn task conflict into increased group performance. strength of conflict is important if task conflict is very low, people aren't really engaged or addressing the important issues. If task conflict is too high, infighting will quickly turn into relationship conflict. Moderate levels of task conflict may thus be optimal. moderate levels of task conflict in the early development stage increased creativity in groups, but high levels decreased team performance. Generalized task conflict unrelated to group performance. However, there were factors of the conflict that could create a relationship between conflict and performance. Task conflict among top management teams was positively associated with performance, whereas conflict lower in the organization was negatively associated with group performance 2. Relationship Conflict - Conflict based on interpersonal relationships. almost always dysfunctional most psychologically exhausting 3\. Process Conflict - Conflict over how work gets done. process conflicts often become highly personalized and quickly devolve into relationship conflicts Loci of Conflict (framework within which the conflict occurs) Intergroup Conflict - Conflict between different groups or teams. THE CONFLICT PROCESS Conflict Process - A process that has five stages: (1) potential opposition or incompatibility, (2) cognition and personalization, (3) intentions, (4) behavior, and (5) outcomes. NEGOTIATION Negotiation/bargaining - A process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them. Bargaining Strategies 1. Distributive Bargaining \- Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources; a win--lose situation. Fixed Pie - The belief that there is only a set amount of goods or services to be divvied up between the parties. 2. Integrative Bargaining -- Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can create a win--win solution THE NEGOTIATION PROCESS Made up of five steps: \(1) preparation and planning a) BatNa \(2) definition of ground rules \(3) clarification and justification \(4) bargaining and problem solving \(5) closure and implementation INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN NEGOTIATION EFFECTIVENESS Personality Traits in negotiations 2 facets of agreeableness: Personality Traits in negotiations Moods/emotions in negotiations Anger Moods/emotions in negotiations Disappointment Anxiety Emotional Unpredictability Culture in negotiations Gender differences in negotiations NEGOTIATING IN A SOCIAL CONTEXT Reputation When it comes to negotiation, having a reputation for being trustworthy matters. Relationships Repeated negotiations Third-Party negotiations 3 basic third-party roles WEEK 18 ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND STRESS MANAGEMENT Forces for Change Nature of the Workforce -- Greater diversity Technology -- Faster, cheaper, more mobile Economic Shocks -- Mortgage meltdown Competition -- Global marketplace Social Trends -- Baby boom retirements World Politics - Iraq War and the opening of China Planned Change Change -- Making things different Planned Change -- Activities that are proactive and purposeful: an intentional, goal-oriented activity -- Goals of Planned Change Change Agents -- Persons who act as catalysts and assume the responsibility for managing change activities Resistance to Change Resistance to change appears to be a natural and positive state Forms of Resistance to Change: -- Overt and Immediate -- Implicit and Deferred Sources of Resistance to Change Individual -- Habit, security, economic factors, fear of the unknown, and selective information processing Organizational -- Structural inertia, limited focus of change, group inertia, threat to expertise, threat to established power relationships and resource allocations Tactics for Overcoming Resistance to Change Education and Communication -- Show those affected the logic behind the change Participation -- Participation in the decision process lessens resistance Building Support and Commitment -- Counseling, therapy, or new-skills training Implementing Change Fairly -- Be consistent and procedurally fair Manipulation and Cooptation -- "Spinning" the message to gain cooperation Selecting people who accept change -- Hire people who enjoy change in the first place Coercion -- Direct threats and force The Politics of Change Impetus for change is likely to come from outside change agents, new employees, or managers outside the main power structure. Internal change agents are most threatened by their loss of status in the organization. Long-time power holders tend to implement incremental but not radical change. The outcomes of power struggles in the organization will determine the speed and quality of change. Lewin's Three-Step Change Model Unfreezing -- Change efforts to overcome the pressures of both individual resistance and group conformity Movement -- Make the changes Refreezing -- Stabilizing a change intervention by balancing driving and restraining forces Lewin: Unfreezing the Status Quo Driving Forces -- Forces that direct behavior away from the status quo Restraining Forces -- Forces that hinder movement from the existing equilibrium Kotter's Eight-Step Plan Builds from Lewin's Model  To implement change: 1\. Establish a sense of urgency 2\. Form a coalition 3\. Create a new vision 4\. Communicate the vision 5\. Empower others by removing barriers 6\. Create and reward short-term "wins" 7\. Consolidate, reassess, and adjust 8\. Reinforce the changes Action Research A change process based on systematic collection of data and then selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data indicates Process steps: 1\. Diagnosis 2\. Analysis 3\. Feedback 4\. Action 5\. Evaluation Action research benefits: -- Problem-focused rather than solution-centered -- Heavy employee involvement reduces resistance to change Organizational Development Organizational Development (OD) -- A collection of planned interventions, built on humanistic-democratic values, that seeks to improve organizational effectiveness and employee well-being OD Values -- Respect for people -- Trust and support -- Power equalization -- Confrontation -- Participation Six OD Techniques 1. Sensitivity Training -- Training groups (T-groups) that seek to change behavior through unstructured group interaction -- Provides increased awareness of others and self -- Increases empathy with others, listening skills, openness, and tolerance for others 2. Survey Feedback Approach -- The use of questionnaires to identify discrepancies among member perceptions; discussion follows and remedies are suggested 3. Process Consultation (PC) -- A consultant gives a client insights into what is going on around the client, within the client, and between the client and other people; identifies processes that need improvement. 4. Team Building -- High interaction among team members to increase trust and openness 5. Intergroup Development -- OD efforts to change the attitudes, stereotypes, and perceptions that groups have of each other 6. Appreciative Inquiry -- Seeks to identify the unique qualities and special strengths of an organization, which can then be built on to improve performance Discovery: Recalling the strengths of the organization Dreaming: Speculation on the future of the organization Design: Finding a common vision Destiny: Deciding how to fulfill the dream Creating a Culture for Change: Innovation 1. Stimulating a Culture of Innovation -- Innovation: a new idea applied to initiating or improving a product, process, or service -- Sources of Innovation: Structural variables: organic structures Long-tenured management Slack resources Interunit communication -- Idea Champions: Individuals who actively promote the innovation 2. Learning Organization -- An organization that has developed the continuous capacity to adapt and change -- Learning Types Single-Loop: errors are corrected using past routines Double-Loop: errors are corrected by modifying routines -- Characteristics Holds a shared vision Discards old ways of thinking Views organization as system of relationships Communicates openly Works together to achieve shared vision Creating a Learning Organization Overcomes traditional organization problems: Manage Learning by: -- Reshaping the organization's culture Work Stress Stress Types of Stress -- Challenge Stressors -- Hindrance Stressors Demands-Resources Model of Stress Demands -- Responsibilities, pressures, obligations, and uncertainties in the workplace Resources -- Things within an individual's control that can be used to resolve demands Adequate resources help reduce the stressful nature of demands Model of Stress Potential Sources of Stress Environmental Factors Organizational Factors Personal Factors Consequences of Stress Stressors are additive: high levels of stress can lead to the following symptoms -- Physiological Blood pressure, headaches, stroke -- Psychological Dissatisfaction, tension, anxiety, irritability, boredom, and procrastination Greatest when roles are unclear in the presence of conflicting demands -- Behavioral Not All Stress Is Bad Some level of stress can increase productivity Too little or too much stress will reduce performance Eustress vs. Distress Managing Stress Individual Approaches Organizational Approaches Global Implications Organizational Change Stress