Psychology Learning Journey - Conformity & Social Roles PDF

 My learning journey in psychology... SOCIAL... INFLUENCE Conformity Unanimity : one of the confederates was There are individual differences. E.g. Some Identification - conforming to. The group instructed to give the correct answer...

 My learning journey in psychology... SOCIAL... INFLUENCE Conformity Unanimity : one of the confederates was There are individual differences. E.g. Some Identification - conforming to. The group instructed to give the correct answer people are more greatly concerned with being because we value their views and opinions throughout. liked by others and have a greater need for social and to be part of the group. Individual Findings - conformity decreased to 5%. Shows relationships and some arenʼt. These people are changes their views publicly but not that if the participant has support for their known as nAffiliators. McGhee and Teevan (1967) privately. belief, then they are more likely to resist the found that students who were nAffiliators were pressure to conform. more likely to conform. explanations does not Internalisation - the individual accepts the Conclusions - people are less likely to conform apply to all as the desire to be liked underlies views and behaviours of the group and when they have an ally who shares their same conformity for some people more than others internalises them. Change becomes beliefs. permanent and views and behaviours Practical application. E.g. Schultz et al change publicly and privately. (2008) found they were able to use NSI in the Task difficulty : made the difference between real world. They used printed messages Compliance - superficial, conforms to the lines significantly smaller. encouraging guests to reuse their towels. They groups views and behaviours in public but Findings - rates of conformity increased. This is. found when the guests were told on the message privately they do not change their views and Likely to be a result of informative social that others were using less towels this persuaded behaviours. influence. them not to the most. This shows that these Research into conformity Asch line explanations can be used in the real world to help study (1956) change and benefit society. Evaluation of Aschʼs line study. Aim - To see to what extent a lone individual Controlled. E.g. conducted in a lab so would conform with the views and environment was similar for all participants,same Conformity to social roles - Zimbardoʼs study behaviours of others/ to see how the lone questions were used for each trial. Reduces real participant would react to the behaviour extraneous variables thus increasing the validity Aims - to test the effects of social roles on conformity on ordinary people through testing of the confederates. whether people would commit evil acts, Biased sample. E.g. Androcentric. We dont... Procedure - he asked volunteers to take specifically the brutal behaviour of prison guards. know if the same findings would be found if part in a ʻvisionʼ test, although unbeknown conducted on women as Asch only had male Procedure - he recruited a sample of 24. to these volunnteers, all but one of the participants. decreases the generalisability. Students through volunteer sampling via a participants were really conferates. newspaper advert, selecting only participants who Participants were seated in a room and were deemed emotionally stable. The participants asked to look at three lines of different Lacks cross cultural validity. E.g all lengths. were randomly assigned to either prisoner or participants lived in the United States which is guard Prison guards were given guard uniform, an individualistic nation. Other psychologists reflective sunglasses and a baton, whilst argue that rates of conformity would be much prisoners were given a jumpsuit and assigned a higher in collectivist nations as conformity is number. The uniforms were used to encourage more favourable as it binds communities deindividuation of the participants. The prison together. Findings cannot be generalised. guards were told they must enforce order in the They were then asked to state, in turn, Lacks temporal validity. E.g. study took prison, but they were not allowed to physically which of the three lines was the same length place right after WW2, a time when conformity harm the prisoners in any way. as the 'standard' line. was high as people were scared to go against Although there was always a fairly obvious the majority. Findings may not be consistent Findings - the guards took up their role with solution to this task, amazingly (to the real across time. enthusiasm and became extremely aggressive to participant), on some of the trials the rest of the prisoners and began mistreating them, the group made the same wrong choice. Lacks ecological validity. E.g. artificial resulting in the study being stopped after 5 days Asch was interested in whether people material, does not represent everyday social rather than the intended 14 days. The prisoners would stick to what they believed to be scenarios. Also less reason to conform as all the initially attempted to rebel against harsh right, or cave in to the pressure of the other confederates were strangers. Findings treatment however, the prison guards harassed majority and go along with its deci-sion. couldʼve been different if the situation was more them constantly, forcing them to carrry out 123 male undergraduates were tested. The realistic and between familiar people. meaningless and demeaning activities and confederates were instructed to give the disturbing their sleep. The prison guards also same incorrect answer on 12 of the 18 Ethical issues. E.g Deception was used as a employed a ʻdivide-and-ruleʼ tactic to undermine trials. method in the study as the real participant was the prisoners solitary, e.g. punishing other deceived into believing that the confederates prisoners when one became rebellious. were real participants. Makes study less credible as goes against BPS guidelines. Conclusion - individuals readily conform to expected social roles. Explanations for conformity Deutch and Gerard 1955 developed the two processes theory, outlining two reasons why people conform; Normative social influence - we conform for Findings/Results - On the 12 critical trials, emotional reasons rather than cognitive reasons. 36.8% of the responses made by true We conform to be accepted by the majority, to participants were incorrect, i.e. they gain approval and to avoid being ridiculed and conformed to the incorrect response given rejected. This often leads to compliance and is by the unanimous decision of the other often temporary. group members. Informative social influence - we conform for Evaluation of Zimbardoʼs study cognitive reasons rather than emotional reasons. Practical application. Zimbardo's research To make sure the line test wasnt difficult, We conform because of a desire to be right/ has been used within prison training regimes to Asch conducted a control trial with no correct. We look to the group to give us highlight and warn Guards about the nature of confederates. He found that people only information that we need. It occurs in conformity to roles. This is important as it will made mistakes 1% of the time. ambiguous, difficult or novel situations. It. Often hopefully prevent aggressive behaviour that can leads to internalisation and permanent change in happen within groups of prison staff towards Why did people conform? behaviour. inmates. Study benefits real people in society as After interviewing participants he found they it has passed awareness on the power of social conformed for one of three reasons: roles in order to reduce unnecessary violence in 1 Distortion of perception: A small prisoners. Is useful. number of participants actually came to see Lacks ecological validity. some the lines in the same way as the majority. psychologists argue that the participants were not genuinely conforming to a role but merely 2 Distortion of judgement: They responding to the demand characteristics of the were doubtful/unsure of their own set-up situation. It was made more unrealistic by judgement. Evaluatinng explanations for conformity the fact that Zimbardo was also playing a Research support for NSI E.g. Asch character in the study (the superintendent). 3 Distortion of Action: Most conducted study into conformity.He then Suggests the study is not representative of a real participants continued to privately think interviewed participants asking why they life scenario. differently from the group, but changed their conformed. Some conformed they felt self- public answer to avoid disapproval conscious in front of the others and were The study was unethical. Zimbardo caused afraid of disapproval. Supports NSI so psychological distress to many of his Type of conformity - compliance increases validity. participants, so much so that the study had to be Also suggests that we conform to avoid stopped after 5 days rather than lasting two negative feelings of disapproval or judgment weeks. It is argued that Zimbardo's role as the therefore we conform for emotional reasons. Research support for ISI. E.g. Todd and 'superintendent' clouded his judgement with Lucas. found participants conformed to regards the protection of his participants and Aschʼs variations incorrect answers more often when math their right to withdraw. This suggests that the problems were difficult than when they were ends of this research donʼt justify the means. Group size : Ranged from 1 to 15. easier as they felt more confident in their Some argue that it would be discredited as it Findings - When there was only one, answers. When difficult, they relied upon the reduces the credibility of psychological studies. participants conformed on only 3% of trials. answers they were given. Supports we When there were 3 confederates, conform to the group when the challenge is Biased sample. Androcentric. Therefore we participants conformed on 31.8% of trials ambiguous, difficult or novel. More valid. dont know if the findings would be the same with and plateaued between 30-40% as the women. This decreases the generalisability of the number of confederates increased. (same as findings. original). This demonstrates that conformity Not always easy to distinguish between reaches its highest with just 3 confederates. NSI and ISI. E.g. it is hard to identify when Controlled. A mock prison was used which is Conclusions - people are more likely to conforming for emotional reasons, cognitive a laboratory environment therefore there are less conform when they have been out reasons or for both. This reduces the validity extraneous variables. This increases the validity numbered. and reliability of explanations. of the findings.  There are individual differences as there are [ Milgrams obedience to authority Aim : to see how far participants would obey still people that do not obey authority even authority when they were asked to inflict though it is legitimate. some people do not obey harm onto another person the law and commit crimes despite there being · To see if in certain situations, participants police officers that have authority to punish. would be more obedient than is through to theory cannot be generalised to everyone. be the case Procedure 40m male volunteers (a self-selected sample) Controlled Iab study - participants were told it was a test of how punishment affects learning. The participant = teacher, confederate = learner. “heart condition” A word association test was the learning task. The naive participant was instructed to give an electrical shock to the learner for Explanations of obedience each wrong answer. The teacher and the The agentic state (situational explanation) learner were in separate rooms with no voice is a psychological state where people feel responsibility for their obeying actions as they The authoritarian personality contact. Adorno believed obedience could be explained believe they are acting for another. However they do still feel guilt. The opposite of the through personality. A questionnair ( F-scale) was agentic state is the autonomous state where a used was used to examine the causes of an... person is free and independent and feels they obedience personality. It was used to measure the are mostly responsible for their own actions. unconscious attitudes of over 2000 middle class The agentic shift is the shift between white Americans towards other racial groups. autonomous state and agentic state. This happens when we percienve the presence of Adorno found a strong correlation between an authority figure. between the authoritarian personality and prejudice. He then linked it to personality. He suggested that obedience is pathological (forming part of our personality).Traits of this personality The measure of obedience was the strength include fixed stereotypes, black and white thinking of the electric shock given. and disrespecting the weak. The strength of the shocks was on a scale of 15 to 450 volts. Particants were told to increase the voltage by 15 for each wrong answer. Participants understood that the highest levels of shock might be deadly especially to a man with a heart condition Participants didn't know till the end that no shock actually took place. Findings: all participants gave a shock up to Evaluating the agentic state explanation. 300 volts. 65% of participants continued to Research support by Milgram and his the highest voltage voltage 450. This situational variables. This increases the validity contradicted predicted results that 1 in of this explanation. 1000 or less would reach 450 volts. Most participants showed signs of extreme stress Problem with research support. It was conducted in a controlled environment that He suggested that an authoritarian personality is - they trembled, sweated, stuttered, dug developed due to harsh parenting during their fingernails into their flesh, and a 3 had does not reflect everyday example of obedience. This reduces the reliability of this childhood that involved strict discipline, impossibly uncontrollable seizures. high standards and severe criticism. Children who research as an explanation for obedience experience this type of parenting experience Conclusions : obedience to authority is due resentment and hostility but are often too scared to more situational factors (the setting, the Research support by Schmitt found that when students watched films of Milgrams to direct theses feelings toward their parents, status of the experimenter and the pressure put on participants) than to “deviant” studies, they said that milgram was responsible therefore displace it onto others. People with an for the actions of the teacher. This increases authoritarian personality are very obedient to personalities. authority, however, are likely to be dismissive to The research is relevant to real life (e.g. the validity of this expanation. inferiors. WWII) and highlights the need to find ways of preventing people from showing Cannot explain individual differences. For misplaced obedience to authority. example some people donʼt obey even when in Evaluation an agenctiv state. This reduces the reliability of Research support. E.g Milgram and Elms this explanation as it cannot be generalised to conducted of fully obedient participants in their everyone. electro shock experiment and found they scored Evaluating the Milgrams study highly on the F-scale. This supports that scoring It was a controlled lab study. Lacks There is an alternative explanation. the highly on the f- scale is a sign of having an ecological validity. authoritarian explanation. this reduces the authoritarian personality. Increasing the validity. validity of this explanation. It has practical application. Can explain The research that supports this theory is real life events (holocaust). So useful correlational. E.g Milgram and Elms study is correlatioonal, as it only showed that obedience Ethical issues as there was no right to Legitimacy of authority (situational correlated with high F-scale scorers, it does not withdraw, deception was used and serious explanation). prove that one caused the other. psychological harm couldʼve been caused It argues that most societies are hierarchical, to the participants knowing that they this tell us who has authority over us. We are The theory is based on flawed and limited potentially killed a man.discredited ? tought about this hierarchy at a young age by research. E.g Adornos research uses self report our parents, teachers and other adults. measures. Theses are inherently unreliable due to Biased sample, androcentric. Lacks Authority figures are people that are higher up particants displaying social desirability bias. Also generalisability. on the social hierarchy and they have the Adorno interviewed his participants he may have power to punish us, this is how we know been prone to researcher bias. This suggests that Variations theyʼre legitimate. We trust and obey their the correlations he found couldʼve been skewed Proximity - to test the power of proximity authority because we believe they use it to or false thus reducing the validity of AP between the teacher and learner. better society. Some obedience can be explanation for obedience. the teacher and learner were seated in destructive when authority figures use their the same room. 65% dropped to 40% power to do wrong. On the whole we obey Lacks generalisability as it is unreasonable to because we feel the authority figures is suggest that all ppl who obey have authoritarian in another teacher had to force the legitimate. personalities. E.g. it is unlikely that all the people in learners hands directly onto the shock Germany wouldʼve had the same personality plate. 65% dropped to only 30% Evaluation during the time of the holocaust even though they Research support. E.g Bickmans were all obedient. This suggests there is an the initial instructions were given to the experiment found that people are more likely - alternative explanation for obedience therefore teacher in person by the experimenter. to obey a police officer over a milkman and AP explanation canʼt be applied to everybody. The experimenter then leaves and all more likely to obey a milkman over an ordinary subsequent instructions were given over civilian. Supports that people donʼt obey The theory is highly biased as it focuses on the phone. 65% dropped to 21%. This people they see to be below them in the social only one type of ideology. E.g. the f scale only shows… hierarchy. measures right wing ideology. This is politically Problems with the quality of research. biased as many form of left wing extremisms Location - the original was done in a lacks cross cultural validity as it was emphasises the importance of complete laboratory at Yale university. In this conducted on only one street in New York. We obedience. Therefore this theory ignores that variation it was conducted in a run down donʼt know if the same conclusions would be other personality types also obey. It is also socially building in Bridgeport, Connecticut. 65% found in other parts of the world. sensitive subject. dropped to 47.5%. This shows less credible locations … There is practical application. E.g there are hierarchy systems in institutions such as Uniform - in the original the experimenter prisons or schools to ensure order and wore a lab coat. In this variation the cooperation between people. This shows that experimenter was called away and this explanation is useful and applied to the replaced by a ʻparticipantʼ in ordinary real world. clothes. 65% dropped to 20%. This shows that… Alternative explanations. the authoritarian personality. This makes us question the validity  On the other end of the scale is people with an Evaluating the social support explanation Bickmans Study of resistance to social influence. Aim - to investigate the degree of social external locus of control. They berelive they power that uniform has on other people. have little to no control over their own lives and instead believe that other people have nor control therefore they must obey and conform Research support. Milgram did a Procedure - (field exp) on the streets of study to measure obedience 65%.he altered Brooklyn, New York. independent measures to them. They are more passive and accepting of what fate has in store for them therefore the study by adding a confederate who said design as participants saw only 1 of 3. no. This made obedience levels drop from they are less likely to resist social influence. People with an external locus of control tend to 65% to 10%. This suggests that social 153 pedestrian's (18 to 61)(opportunity support affects resistance, thus increasing sample) Four white male experimenters aged be very young children or elderly people. the validity. 18 to 20. (similar build, same size clothing) On the whole locus of control affects resistance They were not told the purpose of the to social influence. Problems with research support. It experiment and were told to act in the exact lacks ecological validity, and it contains an same way, regardless of the uniform they androcentric sample. Therefore, we do not were wearing. Each experimenter took it in know if social support would have the same turns to wear each of the three uniforms effect on a female/ mixed sample. therefore, (guard's, a milkman's and normal civilian this cannot be generalised. (sports jacket and tie)). They would stop random pedestrians on the street and ask onw of: Further research support. Asch did another study expanding on his research by adding an ally, who said the correct answer. This allowed for participants to feel more... confident in their answers so conformity levels decreased. This suggests that social support affects resistance to social influence. Practical applications. For example, Evaluating locus of control as an institutions can prevent outbursts of explanation for resistance to social misbehaviour by immediately separating a influence. group of people who are resisting social influence to reduce feelings of social There is Research support. E.g. Oliner and support. This shows that this explanation is Oliner interviewed two groups of. Non Jewish useful in the real world and is used to benefit society. people who had lived through the holocaust and nazi Germany, they compared 406 people who Picking up a bag: Pointed to a small paper had protected and rescued Jews from the nazis bag on the ground and said 'pick up this bag and 126 people who had not done this. They for me'. did not comply? immediately “I have found that the group that rescued the Jews had a bad back” scores demonstrating an internal locus of control. this supports that people who have an Dime and meter: Pointed to a confederate internal locus of control are more likely to resist beside a car, 'This fellow doesn't have any change. Give him a dime!' Did not comply? SI. Increases validity. immediately, “I donʼt have any change either” Bus stop: if they were standing alone at the Research support/research refuting. bus stop. approach and say 'Don't you know Holland repeated milgramʼs baseline study and you have to stand on the other side of this measure whether participants were internal or pole? The sign says 'No standing'. Did not external. He found 37% of internal did not comply immediately?,'Then the bus won't continue to the highest shock however 23% of stop here, it's a new law'. externals did not continue. This reduces or increases the validity of this explanation of Findings : resisting social influence. It has low temporal validity and there is contradicting research E.g wenge analysed data from the amercan obedience studies over a 40 year period. The data showed that, over this time span, people have become more resistant to obedience but have also become more external. This shows that the results donʼt match the predictions that the theory makes therefore questions the validity of the theory. Alternative explanation. Eg social support. Decreases validity. Can explain individual differences found in Resisting social influence Aschʼs and Milgrams study. Not all people Locus of control Loc refers to a personʼs perception of confirmed or obeyed (data) which suggests that personal control over their own behaviour. social influence is affected by personality type It is measured along a scale. People who and not just the external situation. This have a high locus of control believe that increases the validity of this explanation. they have lots of personal control over their life. They also believe that their success or failure is their fault as it is due Social support to choices r they have made. They tend to Resisting depends on the presence of other be more motivated and confident therefore people who are also resisting social influence. they are more likely to resist social This affirms our decision to not confirm or to influence. People with an internal locus of control tend to be middle aged. disobey and encourage us to resist doctoral influence. This other person/group of people is known as an ally. Referred to as an ally if you have an ally you're more likely to resist. An ally is someone on your side. On the whole, we resist social influence if others do too.  Evaluation of minority influence social cryptoamnesia : people have memory Minority Influence Research support for consistency by that changed occurred, but do not remember Moscovici which increases the validity.. how this change happened. Biased sample Lacks e logical validity Commitment Practical application. it can be used to cause social change in the real world therefore it is useful. Individual differences. e.g. not everyone will be persuaded no matter how inconsistent, flexible or consistent the minority is. This decreases validity Understanding social change drawing attention : the individual or group Consistency draw attention to the issues they are trying to change. Evaluation of social change Research support. e.g Moscovici consistency. this suggests minority must be... consistent. Flexibility Research support by Asch. Once there has been a snowball effect, the minority does become the majority. e.g conforming when more confederates Individual differences not everyone will consistency : the minority must remain internalise everything. e.g some people are consistent in their thoughts and beliefs to more susceptible to minority influence than Moscovici Et Al. persuade the majority. others. some won't pay attention at all. so Aim: Can a minority influence a majority? social change doesn't eventually happy. Procedure: He pre-tested the sample for cultural differences e.g some countries colour-blindness. Sample size: 172 female are not allowed to protest. so, it could be participants. It was a lab experiment and they more difficult to cause social change to were put into three conditions which happen in this way. included consistent, inconsistent and control. Each condition had 6 people, 4 participants and 2 confederates. Participants were asked sometimes it does not involve all these to describe the colour of 36 slides. In the steps. so makes us question the validity. consistant group, confederates said that all the slides were green. In the inconsistent group, confederates said 24/36 were green. the augmentation principle : individuals In the control, there were no confederates. put themselves at risk to further promote the issues they are trying to change. the personal risk demonstrates their commitment, reinforcing their beliefs and messages. & deeper processing : the activist of groups or individuals means that people now think Findings: In the consistent, 8.42% of more deeply about the issues being raised participants answers were green and in the rather than simply accepting the message. inconsistent group, 1.25% of participants' answers were green. In a control condition, 0.25% of the participants Conclusion: The minority does have influence over the majority and this influence is more effective when the minority is consistent. This shows that minorities are more persuasive when consistent, which has implications for people in leadership positions. Evaluating minority influence Artificial materials were used. Minority influence in the real world tends to be about important issues however some might argue saying the colour of slides isnʼt reflective of minority influence in the real world. snowball effect : as more people begin to Therefore canʼt be applied to the real world back the minority an internalise their views and lacks ecological validity and beliefs, the minority slowly becomes the majority. bias sample. estrocentric so we don't know if consistency would influence men in the same way. this decreases the generalisability. lab study. highly controlled. this limits extraneous variables ensuring that it was only consistency or a lack of consistency that affected the results. this increases the validity' and replicability large sample size of 172 participants. this makes us more confident that the minority will influence the majority as long as they are consistent. this increases the validity.  MEMORY... The multi-store model of memory Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) The working memory model A system involving active processing and short term storage of information ↑ he central executive - T It has a supervisory role in controlling our attention; determining what information gets attended to. It directs information to other slave systems. It has limited capacity and deals with only one piece of information at a time. The visual spatial sketchpad - It holds visual and spatial information. The visual cache stores data about form and colour while the inner scribe records arrangement of objects in the visual field The phonological loop - Responsible for holding verbal and... acoustic tasks. It plays a key role in the development of reading. The phonological store stores words you hear while the articulatory process allows maintenance rehearsal. Maintenance rehearsal - keeps information in the STM so that it doesnʼt/ get The episodic buffer - The episodic buffer is temporal extra forgotten storage that integrates information from other components Elaborate rehearsal - moves information from STM to LTM of the working memory model. Sensory memory - very large capacity, encoded by senses, less than 1 second duration t Research support - Baddeley (1975) 2 groups of participants T Research support- Glanzer and Cunnits - primacy and recency Group 1: complete a visual task and a verbal task. effect - Increases validity Group 2: complet 2 visual tasks. S R. Baddeley - STM coded acoustically and LTM coded semantically Findings: g1 can process the 2 different types of + information at the same time. Suggests that there are 2 distinct memory stores as the MSM also G2: was slower at both tasks as. (Explanation slave systems overloaded). This increases the suggests. validity of the working memory model and the existence of different slave systems in our STM that process different - Research against - shallice and Warrington case study reported that types of information. brain damaged patient KF could recall information that he read I Research support - Further research for the existence of better than he could recall information that was read to him. This different slave systems is the case study by Shallice and Warrington (1970). Patient k.F had a motorcycle accident suggests that there might be different types of STM stores that that gave him brain injuries which meant was unable to encode information in unique ways. This therefore decreases the process auditory information but could process visual information normally. He had limited recall of letters and validity of the MSM as it does not elaborate on the different types digits which were read to him but better recall for letters and digits that he read himself. This suggests that his of STM. ine elements of phonological loop got damaged but his visuospeatial sketch Enti an episode st pad stayed intact. This validates the working memory events , model further. be er you have · to i memory diaryand of contains knowledge an number of of impressive like a dictionary I More comprehensive explanation of the STM than the MSM. More useful One disadvantage of patient K.F case study is that its a concis make the Ey as daily or encylopeda concepts such pd,happen, is as findings cannot be generalised to the whole population episodic memories animals , , an orange love or a because it was a unique case scenario of only one person. particular celeb. Therefore the findings could differ between people and is happened. We not representative of everybody. can in There is reseach support for different types of LTM Clive Wearing has retrograde Researcher bias. There is risk of. Bradley’s research to amnesia so cannot remember his musical support his model being biased because he developed the education (episodic) however he remembers working memory model and then conducted research to facts about his life (semantic). He can also support his own model. Therefore he could’ve been biased play the piano (procedural). He is also unable to encode new episodic or semantic in order to make is work more credible. This therefore enaw memories due to also having anterograde decreases the scientific credibility and reliability of his amnesia, but he is able to gain new research. procedural memories via repetition This suggests semantic, episodic and procedural memory exist as separate processes, as A limitation of the working memory model is that the central Clive lacks episodic completely, can recall executive has been considered to be too vague. For Conflicting neuro-imaging evidence For but not encode semantic memories, and his example baddley 2005 said that the central executive is the procedural memory is functional. This is most important yet least understood part of the working example Tulving et al (1994) suggested likely related to the damaged area of Clive's that episodic memory resides in left brain. memory model there is relatively little research into it so it hemisphere while semantic memory is not clear what its function is exactly. This questions the resides I the right hemisphere however credibility of the model. Buckner and Peterson (1966) suggested A disadvantage of Cliveʼs case study is that that semantic memory was in the left it is a study about the unique experience of hemisphere instead and episodic one individual. The findings concerning Clive memory in the right. These two findings might not be the same for every other reduce the validity of each other and individual it canʼt be generalised to the wider therefore decrease the reliabilit population. Practical application It is known that A limitation of clinical evidence is that the elderly people experience memory loss. researchers lack control variables For Research has shows that this seems to be example we are unable to capacity of the specific to episodic memory. personʼs memory before the injury. This Belevlille et al (2006) devises an limits the usefulness of clinical studies intervention to improve episodic memory when explaining different types of in older people. Participants who took part memory in the intervention performed better on a test of episodic memory after training compared to a control. This shows that research into different types of long term memory has a had a beneficial impact on peopleʼs lives ont he real world. This increases the usefulness of this research. Eye witness testimony Anxiety is a state if emotional and physical The cognitive interview method is a Availability of peoples accurately, arousal. The emotions include : method of interviewing eyewitnesses remember the details of events which Having worrying thoughts and feelings of to help them retrieve more accurate they have observed. E.g. an accidental physical tension. Physical changes may include memories. or a crime. increased heart rate and sweatiness. Anxiety is a normal reaction to a stressful It was developed by Fisher and Factors affecting eyewitness testimony situation, but can affect the accuracy and Geiselman in 1992. Misleading information - incorrect detail of eyewitness testimony. information given to an eyewitness and Allow memories to be assessed using Anxiety Weapon focus effect multiple strategies Anxiety affects physiological arousal in the Memory is better if youʼre provided There are two types of misleading body. Increased anxiety prevents us paying with retrieval information - attention to important cues. Research has Leading questions focused on the presence of a weapon when It consists of 4 techniques : And looking into the effect of anxiety and Report everything - eyewitnesses are Post event discussion eyewitness testimony. encouraged to include every detail even details they might feel to be irrelevant or details they A leading question is a question which, Research by Johnson and Scott are not completely sure of as these details may because of the way it is phrased suggest (1976) help trigger mote intmoprtant ones. a certain answer for example, “was the A lab study, with 2 difffernt groups. night in his left hand?”, instead of “which A low anxiety group and a high anxiety Reinstate context : they are encouraged to hand was the knife in?” group. return to the original cringe scene “in their Loftus and Palmer, 1974 mind” and imagine the environment and their... Demonstrated that memory can be The low anxiety group sat in a mock emotions and feelings at the time. This is related deliberately distorted by simply changing waiting room and heard a to context dependent forgetting. a verb in the question. conversation in the office next door. A man holding a pen with grease on his Reverse the order in which the events happened Procedure: 45 participants hands walks out of the office. - events recalled in a different chronological Were asked to watch a clip of two cars in order to the original sequence - e.g from the an accident. end to the start to the middle to the start - They were then asked to complete a prevents people from reporting their questionnaire after watching the clip. The high anxiety groups also sat in a expectations of how the event must have The participants are placed into five mock waiting room however they happened. It also prevents dishonesty as it is groups. Each group had a different word. heard an argument and glass more difficult to make up assumptions when How fast was the car moving when it hit, smashing coming from the next door saying the reversed order of events. contacted, bumped, collided, smashed, office. A man holding a knife with b the other car? loud on his hands then walks out of Change the perpsective - recalling the event The group “contacted”, gave the lowest the office. from he perspective of a different witness or speed(31.8mph) , whearas the group the perpetrator in done to disrupt the “smashed” gave the highest speed expectations of the schema on recall. The (40.5mph) schema you have for the particular setting generates expectations of what wouldʼve Conclusions: leading questions, affect The participants were then shown 50 happened and it is the schema that is recalled the answers of eyewitness testimonies different pictures and asked to identify the instead of the actual happenings. Evaluation: individual holding the knife or the pen. There is a biased sample. For example, they were all male therefore we Findings : Johnson and Scott found that 49% canʼt generalise findings to women. of the low anxiety group correctly identified the person holding the pen. There is practical application, for They also found that only 33% of the high example, law enforcement, avoid, asking anxiety group group correctly identified the As well as using the 4 techeniques, this also leading questions. This shows that the person holding the knife. incudes ; research is useful in real life. Conclusion : making and relinquishing eye contact high anxiety has a negative effect on the Asking open ended questions The study has high control, for ability of eyewitnesses to recall accurate Being in a one on one setting and having example it was conducted in a lab, this information. no distractions around removed extraneous variables which Marketing sure theyʼre relaxed to reduce makes the study more scientifically anxiety credible and findings more valid. Post research support. For example, kohnken et al event discussion: when there is more (1999) combined data from 55 studies than one witness at the event, witnesses Research by Yuille and Cutshall (1988) comparing the cognitive interview to the may discuss what they have seen 13 people who had witnessed a real crime of. standard police interview. The cognitive whether co-witness, this influences Shop keeper shooting a thief dead agreed to interview gave an average of a 41% increase in accuracy of each witnesses recall of the take part in the study. accurate information compared to the standard event. interview. This increases the validity of the cognitive interview in aiding the ability of eye Gabbert et al, 2003 witnesses the recall accurate information. Explored the effects of post-event discussion. practical application. Stein and Memon (2000) They were interviewed 5 months after he found that the cognitive interview to be more Procedure: He used 2 experimental incident and made reports of the incident. productive than the standard model of police groups which watched the same clip, but These reports were then compared to the questioning which is interrogative, involves different angles/perspectives. original police interviews made at the time of torture and other ill treatment. This shows that the interview. The accuracy of the reports was he cognitive interview is more effective than Both participants then discussed what determined using a number of details. The other types of interviews therefore is useful they had seen before completing a test participants wer also asked to rate how on recall. stressed they had felt at the time of the some aspects of it may be more effective than incident on a scale of 0 - 7. They were also others. For example although Milne and Bill Findings : 71% of all the participants asked if they had experienced any emotional (2002) found that each of the 4 techniques mistakenly recalled aspect for the event problems since the event such as used alone produce more information than the that they had not seen in their clip but sleeplessness. standard CI, they also found that using a picked up in discussion. A control group combination of “recall everything and reinstate had 0% inaccurate recall. context” produced significantly better recall. Findings : witnesses were very accurate in their This shows that the useful information gained Conclusion : discussion, impact accuracy, accounts and there was little differences by using the cognitive interview is better when eyewitness testimony. between the original report and 5 months later. aspects of it are combined rather than on their Some details were recalled less accurately than own. Evaluation : others however these were minor details such is difficul to implement ion real life e.g. Findings do not explain individual as the colour of items and estimates about Kebbbell and Wagstaff suggested that for it to differences, for example, The other 29% age, height and weight.The higher anxiety be effective the interviewer needs more time mustʼve had individual differences that report had 88% accurate recall while the lower to establish rapport with the witness and allow enhanced their ability to recall accurate anxiety reports from 5 months later had 75% them to relax. The CI also requires special information. This shows that the findings accurate recall. training and many forces do not that the canʼt be generalised to everyone and all resources toto provide more than a few hours situations. Conclusions : for each member of staff. the availability to High anxiety has a positive effect off the use the cognitive interview is limited due to There is practical application, for accuracy of eyewitness testimony time constraints and inadequate recources. :i example, law enforcement keep unrealistic method for police officers to use. eyewitnesses apart to prevent post- event discussion. This shows that the there.is research refuting.E.g. Konken at al also found an increase in the amount of research is useful and beneficial in real inaccurate information recalled by the participants mainly when using the enhanced CI. This life. suggests that there is a risk of inaccurate information being recalled which reduces the usefulness of the techniques Types of long term memory (Endel Triving) Episodic memory memories of events , places and people , diary record of daily happenings. semantic memory memory of facts , names or general knowledge. E.. g who the prime minister is. procedural memory responsible or 'motor skills! how to walk , ride a bike or feed ourselves elements of actions or an episode Skills. nee events , Enti places , Ein edural , st we can recall Peopla without any Episodic memory conscious contains awareness or diary of you have to knowledge a great deal record of like a impressive Of effort an might a concis We make as daily. number of dictionary happenings S find them episodic memories time- stamped , concepts such as the Ey or encylopeda E g.. the ability hard to... animals , orange to drive a car to you remember , an explain when they love or a eventually depends particular celeb someone happened.. on procedural else memory.. Evaluation of LTM Types Point evidence explanation I There is reseach support Clive Wearing has retrograde amnesia so This suggests semantic, episodic and for different types of cannot remember his musical education procedural memory exist as separate (episodic) however he remembers facts processes, as Clive lacks episodic LTM about his life (semantic). He can also play completely, can recall but not encode the piano (procedural). He is also unable to semantic memories, and his procedural encode new episodic or semantic memories memory is functional. This is likely due to also having anterograde amnesia, but related to the damaged area of Clive's he is able to gain new procedural memories brain. & via repetition A disadvantage of Clive’s The findings concerning Clive might it can’t be generalised to the wider case study is that it is a not be the same for every other population. study about the unique individual experience of one individual. A limitation of clinical For example we are unable to capacity This limits the usefulness of clinical evidence is that the of the person’s memory before the studies when explaining different researchers lack control injury. types of memory variables Conflicting neuro-imaging For example Tulving et al (1994) suggested evidence These two findings reduce the that episodic memory resides in left validity of each other and hemisphere while semantic memory therefore decrease the resides I the right hemisphere however reliabilit Buckner and Peterson (1966) suggested that semantic memory was in the left hemisphere instead and episodic memory in the right. I Practical application It is known that elderly people This shows that research into different experience memory loss. Research types of long term memory has a had a has shows that this seems to be beneficial impact on people’s lives ont he specific to episodic memory. real world. This increases the usefulness of this research. Belevlille et al (2006) devises an intervention to improve episodic memory in older people. Participants who took part in the intervention performed better on a test of episodic memory after training compared to a control. Glanzer and Cunits 1966 Aim : to test structure and process of the Multi-store model of memory procedure : Participants were shown a list of about 20 words one at a time. They were then asked to say the words they remember from the list findings : participants remembered words at the start of the list (primacy effect) and words at the end of the list. Crecency effect). conclusion : They remembered the words at the beginning of the list because those words had been rehearsed for a longer time. They remembered the words at the end of the list because they were still in the short term memory which has a duration of 18-30 seconds....· Evaluation of the multi-store model of memory. P E Es.. & I Research interest Support Research refuting Glanzer and Cunits shallice & Warrington 1974 Primacy · effect & case reported that brain- · recency effect not represent our damaged patient KF could This increases the everyday memory. This recall verbal/visual validity of the MSM decreases the validity information however he of the MSM couldn't recall visual/verbal information. This suggests that there are different types of short + The MSM was a pioneering model of memory that term memory y eg for inspired further research and consequently other influential models, such as the Working Memory non verbal sounds or visual Model. information. Validity The cognitive interview method is a method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories. It was developed by Fisher and Geiselman in 1992. Allow memories to be assessed using multiple strategies Memory is better if youʼre provided with retrieval It consists of 4 techniques : Report everything - eyewitnesses are encouraged to include every detail even... details they might feel to be irrelevant or details they are not completely sure of as these details may help trigger mote intmoprtant ones. Reinstate context : they are encouraged to return to the original cringe scene “in their mind” and imagine the environment and their emotions and feelings at the time. This is related to context dependent forgetting. Reverse the order in which the events happened - events recalled in a different chronological order to the original sequence - e.g from the end to the start to the middle to the start - prevents people from reporting their expectations of how the event must have happened. It also prevents dishonesty as it is more difficult to make up assumptions when saying the reversed order of events. Change the perpsective - recalling the event from he perspective of a different witness or the perpetrator in done to disrupt the expectations of the schema on recall. The schema you have for the particular setting generates expectations of what wouldʼve happened and it is the schema that is recalled instead of the actual happenings. As well as using the 4 techeniques, this also incudes ; making and relinquishing eye contact Asking open ended questions Being in a one on one setting and having no distractions around Marketing sure theyʼre relaxed to reduce anxiety Evaluation P E E s t An advantage of the cognitive interview is that there is A disadvantage of the cognitive interview is that it is difficul research support. For example, kohnken et al (1999) to implement ion real life For example Kebbbell and Wagstaff combined data from 55 studies comparing the cognitive (1997) suggested that for the cognitive interview to be interview to the standard police interview. The cognitive effective the interviewer neeeds more time to establish interview gave an average of a 41% increase in accurate rapport with the witness and allow them to relax. The information compared to the standard interview. This cognitive interview also requires special training and many increases the validity of the cognitive interview in aiding the forces do not that the resources toto provide more than a ability of eye witnesses the recall accurate information. few hours for each member of staff. This suggests that the availability to use the cognitive interview is limited due to time t An advantages of the cognitive e interview is that it has constraints and inadequate recources. Therefore it is an practical application. Stein and Memon (2000) found that unrealistic method for police officers to use. the cognitive interview to be more productive than the standard model of police questioning which is interrogative, involves torture and other ill treatment. This shows that he - A disadvantage of the enhanced cognitive interview is that cognitive interview is more effective than other types of there.is research refuting. For example Konken at al also interviews therefore is useful found an increase in the amount of inaccurate information recalled by the participants mainly when using the enhanced. cognitive interview. This suggests that there is a risk of A disadvantage of the cognitive interview is that some inaccurate information being recalled which reduces the aspects of it may be more effective than others. For usefulness of the techniques example although Milne and Bill (2002) found that each of the 4 techniques used alone produce more information than the standard cognitive interview, they also found that using a combination of “recall everything and reinstate context” produced significantly better recall. This shows that the useful information gained by using the cognitive interview is better when aspects of it are combined rather than on their own. Anxiety is a state if emotional and physical arousal. The emotions include : Having worrying thoughts and feelings of physical tension. Physical changes may include increased heart rate and sweatiness. Anxiety is a normal reaction to a stressful situation, but can affect the accuracy and detail of eyewitness testimony. Weapon focus effect Anxiety affects physiological arousal in the body. Increased anxiety prevents us paying attention to important cues. Research has focused on the presence of a weapon when looking into the effect of anxiety and eyewitness testimony.... Research by Johnson and Scott (1976) A lab study, with 2 difffernt groups. A low anxiety group and a high anxiety group. The low anxiety group sat in a mock waiting Research by Yuille and Cutshall (1988) 13 people who had witnessed a real crime of. Shop keeper shooting a thief dead agreed to take part in the study. room and heard a conversation in the office next door. A man holding a pen with grease on his hands walks out of the office. They were interviewed 5 months after he incident and made reports of the incident. These reports were then compared to the original police interviews made at the time of the interview. The The high anxiety groups also sat in a mock accuracy of the reports was determined using a waiting room however they heard an number of details. The participants wer also argument and glass smashing coming from asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the the next door office. A man holding a knife time of the incident on a scale of 0 - 7. They were with b loud on his hands then walks out of also asked if they had experienced any emotional the office. problems since the event such as sleeplessness. The participants were then shown 50 different pictures and asked to identify the individual holding the knife or the Findings : witnesses were very accurate in their pen. accounts and there was little differences between the original report and 5 months later. Some Findings : Johnson and Scott found that details were recalled less accurately than others 49% of the low anxiety group correctly however these were minor details such as the identified the person holding the pen. colour of items and estimates about age, height and weight. They also found that only 33% of the The higher anxiety report had 88% accurate recall high anxiety group group correctly while the lower anxiety reports from 5 months identified the person holding the knife. later had 75% accurate recall. Conclusion : Conclusions : high anxiety has a negative effect on the High anxie