Visual Perception PDF

Visual Perception Constancies Size Color Shape Concepts & Prototypes Formal Concepts: have clearly defined characteristics and agreed upon rules governing what is included in that concept ○ Examples: triangles, elements in the periodic table, animals Natural Concepts do...

Visual Perception Constancies Size Color Shape Concepts & Prototypes Formal Concepts: have clearly defined characteristics and agreed upon rules governing what is included in that concept ○ Examples: triangles, elements in the periodic table, animals Natural Concepts do not have clearly defined characteristics nor agreed upon rules of what is included in the concept ○ Examples: Chair, mom, anger Prototypes are mental images of “exemplars” of a concept What is your prototype for a sandwich? Prototypes Concepts form the basis of thought. Prototypes are the ideal example for any given concept. How might prototypes have played a role in the schemas of the children from this video? How do you think we go about changing schemas? Algorithms Problem: A situation in which a person has a goal that is not yet accomplished ALGORITHM: A process or set of steps to solve a problem. Algorithms address problems by attempting all possible solutions until the correct one is found. Actual Chess Visualization activity Heuristics A HEURISTIC is a general rule based on our experience that we use to judge and make decisions. Also known as “rule of thumb.” I before E except after C.  Heuristics Availability Representative Heuristics Heuristics Recalling the first or most Decisions are made vivid example that comes to according to prior mind. expectations or stereotypes. Dayanara when to the chiropractor and was not purposely temporarily paralyzed. Her friend refuses to see a chiropractor. Heuristics How did Mrs. Elliot use availability heuristics and representative heuristics to influence the judgment of others? What evidence of this do you see today? BIG IDEA: Heuristics address problems by using mental shortcuts to make judgments. Using heuristics can lead to errors in judgment. Priming & Framing Decision making can be influenced by prior experiences that were successful (mental set) or circumstances surrounding a decision: PRIMING: when a person's response to a stimulus is influenced by a previous exposure to a related stimulus, without the person being aware of the connection. FRAMING: a cognitive bias that occurs when people make decisions based on how information is presented, rather than the facts themselves Poor Decision-Making Cognitive Processes Gambler’s Fallacy Sunk-Cost Fallacy The false belief that a random a person is reluctant to event is more or less likely to abandon a strategy or course happen based on the outcome of action because they have of a previous event. AKA invested heavily in it, even Monte Carlo fallacy. when it is clear that abandonment would be more beneficial. Executive Functions Executive functions are cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking. Creativity Insight: Problems in which the problem solver comes to the solution all at once, not gradually; typically after an incubation period (unconscious cognitive time of processing). CONVERGENT THINKING: Type of thinking in which the number of possible solutions is narrowed down to the single best solution. DIVERGENT THINKING: Type of thinking in which the number of possible solutions is expanded to include multiple feasible solutions. FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS: a cognitive bias that limits a person's ability to use an object in a new or innovative way BIG IDEA: Creativity is a way of thinking that includes generating novel ideas and engaging in divergent (versus convergent) thinking. Creative thinking is hindered by functional fixedness. Top Down & Bottom Up Processing Bottom Up The process of sensation, whereby the input of sensory information from the external environment is received by sensory receptors. People are not relying on previous experiences but attempt to make sense of what is being looked at strictly based on sensory stimuli. Can build up to higher levels of processing. Top Down & Bottom Up Processing Top Down Perceiving the world around us by drawing from what we already know in order to interpret new information People engaging higher mental processes such as expectations, beliefs, values and social influences  Schemas & Perceptual Sets Schema: A set of mental tendencies and assumptions that affects, top-down. Internal factors that filter our perceptions. Perceptual Set: Contexts, experiences, and cultural experiences are external factors that filter our perceptions. Experiences influence our expectations, thus determining our perceptions. Perception & Culture How does experience play a role in these children’s perceptions? Gestalt Principles School of thought that focuses on how people perceive objects and situations as a whole, rather than as individual parts. Closure, Proximity Shapes, objects or design When we look at a complex arrangement of visual elements located near each elements, we tend to look for a single, recognizable other tend to be perceived pattern as a group Similarity, Continuity & Figure Ground When objects resemble Objects arranged in People instinctively perceive each other in some way continuous lines or curves as objects as either being in (such as color or shape), our more related than elements the foreground or the brain will group them on a jagged or broken line background  Memory Memories for learned knowledge, events, and experiences are differentiated by how they are processed by, stored in, and retrieved by the brain. Effortful v. Automatic Processing Effortful Processing: encoding that requires attention and conscious effort Automatic Processing: unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency , and of well-learned information, such as word meaning Deep v. Shallow Processing Shallow Processing:encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words Deep Processing: encoding semantically (meaning) , based on the meaning of words; tends to yield the best retention Additional video to review: Simply Psychology Metacognition Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes Review: Long-term Potentiation A process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation (a biological process for memory). Review Multi-Store Model of Memory Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Model of Memory Sensory Memories: a brief storage of information in humans wherein information is momentarily registered until it is recognized Working (Short Term) Memory: the small amount of information that can be held in mind and used in the execution of cognitive tasks Long Term Memory: unlimited storage information to be maintained for long periods, even for life BIG IDEA: This model focuses on the impact of automatic and effortful processing on memory encoding, storage, and retrieval. Review Levels of Processing Model The levels of processing model proposes that memory is encoded on three levels from shallowest to deepest: structural, phonemic, and semantic. Encoding Encoding is the process by which we place the things that we experience into memory. If there are interruptions during the encoding process, storage and retrieval become less likely Memory Consolidation Memory consolidation refers to the process by which a temporary, labile memory is transformed into a more stable, long-lasting form.  Primacy & Recency Based on this idea, which items from the grocery list are you most likely to remember? Serial position effect (order of how information is presented) affects the encoding process, specifically the fact that we recall the earliest or latest information better. Storage Storage is the process of storing information that was previously encoded to recall A schema is a mental model stored in long-term memory that the brain uses to organize information. Built from memories and experiences and are unique to each individual Schemas for every topic imaginable: objects, events, people, activities, relationships, and even your concept of self Storage Sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory are processes that differ in storage duration, capacity, and content.  Prolonging Storage Maintenance Elaborative Rehearsal Rehearsal Practicing, or continued Rehearsing over time in a intentional exposure, over meaningful way time  Storage Some people demonstrate highly superior autobiographical memory which may indicate that there are biological processes for superior memory storage. Autobiographical memory may also explain why memories connected to our own lives or selves are more memorable. Storage processes may be negatively affected by physical impairment and developmental limitations, such as amnesia (retrograde and anterograde), Alzheimer’s disease, and infantile amnesia.* *Many of these will be discussed in more detail in the next lesson. Retrieval Retrieval is the process by which we get information out of memory Which of the following is the women’s basketball coach? Recall v. Recognition ○ Holmes Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon: a ○ Simmons state where one can’t recall a familiar ○ Brace ○ Joyce word but can recall words of similar ○ Pettaway form and meaning ○ Oberlin How many stars are on the U.S. flag? What is the name of the closest body of water? False Memories Definitions ○ Mental experiences that people believe are accurate representations of past events ○ Trivial details (believing you put your keys on the table when you got home) to much more serious (believing you saw someone at the scene of a crime) Elizabeth Loftus research showed that it is possible to induce false memories through suggestion False memories may even play a role How do you think schemas impact in contributing to a larger Mandela eyewitness testimony? effect Strategies to Improve Memory Spacing effect: the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice Chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically Elaborative Rehearsal/Encoding: processing new information in ways that make it more relevant or meaningful (deep processing) Mnemonic devices: memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery ○ Method of Loci: using visualization of items in a location. Like looking in your refrigerator for the “place” where you usually have milk, lemonade, grapes, cheese. EBBINGHAUS’S FORGETTING CURVE Over time, retaining memories becomes more difficult, though recognition is sometimes easier than recall. The forgetting curve shows that time is a significant factor in forgetting. Forgetting occurs rapidly after initial learning and levels off over time. How does spacing effect relate? Help with Retrieval 1. Retrieval cues 2. Priming 3. Distributed practice/spacing effect/massed practice 4. Mnemonic device 5. Context-dependent memory 6. State-dependent memory Forgetting ENCODING FAILURE & STORAGE DECAY Encoding failure happens when we don’t Unused connections over time lead to pay enough attention to stimuli to get the decay of stored memories–think information from working memory to Ebbinghaus long-term memory storage. Forgetting TYPES OF AMNESIAS Anterograde amnesia is caused by damage to the hippocampus and results in the inability to create new memories. Retrograde amnesia is also caused by damage to the hippocampus, but is characterizes with the inability to remember anything that occurred before a certain time. Forgetting INTERFERENCE Proactive Interference Retroactive Interference When something we learned earlier Disruptive effect of new learning on the disrupts recall of something we recall of old information experience later Example: Someone asks you for your old Example: Trying to remember a new address and it is blocked because our new phone number may be disrupted by the address interferes with our recall of it memory of an old phone number P.O.R.N. Proactive–Old info interferes, Retroactive-New info interferes Forgetting CUES & INTERFERENCE Proactive interference is forward-acting Other important notes: Retroactive interference is Sigmund Freud’s Repression: backward-acting unconscious forgetting of painful memories as a defense mechanisms Confabulation: filling in gaps in Retrieval Cues: memory and substituting memories from events other than what you’re Smell of food triggers family memory trying to remember Giving a “first letter” as a clue to an Misinformation effect: incorporating answer (and tip of the tongue) misleading information into our Song on radio reminds of a friend memory of an event  Psychodynamic Perspective Psychodynamic theorists believe that information or memories can be forgotten to defend the ego from distress (repression).  Accuracy of Memories The accuracy of memories may be affected by: misinformation effect source amnesia constructive memory (via memory consolidation and imagination inflation) Alzheimer’s disease  Theories of Intelligence Spearman’s g Intelligence: the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations General Intelligence (g): according to Charles Spearman (1904), general intelligence underlies all mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence task. Synonyms: Spearman’s g, g factor, general intelligence  Theories of Intelligence Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence Howard Gardner (1983) suggested that multiple different types of intelligence may exist. The eight intelligences according to Gardner are: Visual-spatial Linguistic-verbal Logical-mathematical Body-kinesthetic Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic  Theories of Intelligence Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Robert Sternberg's theory (1984) focuses on three types of intelligence are: Analytical intelligence (problem-solving and academic ability) Creative intelligence (generating new ideas and adapting to novel situations) Practical intelligence (applying knowledge to real-world situations, often called "street smarts")  Theories of Intelligence Crystalized & Fluid Intelligence A theory that describes intelligence as a combination of two types of abilities: fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence developed by psychologist Raymond Cattell and John Horn. Crystalized Intelligence Fluid Intelligence Acquired and learned over time Thinking and problem solving Based on facts without relying on prior Increases with age knowledge Examples: Decreases with age, especially ○ Recalling vocabulary after adolescence ○ Remembering dates, trivia Examples: ○ Solving puzzles ○ Reasoning ○ Interpreting data Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Wechsler Wechsler developed another another set of age-based intelligence test, all named after him–for preschool, childreden, and adults Z-scores (think the number of standard deviations above or below the mean) indicate intellectual functioning -2 or lower = intellectual disability +2 or higher = intellectually gifted What percentage of people fall between -2 and +2?  Measuring Intelligence All psychological assessments, including intelligence tests, should adhere to sound psychometric principles to be considered useful. A test is said to be standardized when it is administered using consistent procedures and environments. A test is considered valid if it measures what it is designed to measure. Types of validity include construct and predictive. A test is considered reliable if it yields similar results each time it is administered. Types of reliability include test-retest and split-half. Intelligence Testing: Reliability & Validity Validity Reliability Construct validity. How well a test Same score no matter where, when, or measures the concept it's intended to how many times we take it. measure. Test-retest reliability. American History exam includes American wars but not culture wars in China. IQ tests taken more than once Can the test distinguish between a person SAT in spring of junior year, fall of with schizophrenia and a person without? senior year Predictive validity. How well a score on a Split-half method. test or scale can predict a future outcome, such as a behavior, performance, or I feel safe at my school. disease. I feel unsafe at my school. ○ A college admissions test predicting college GPA range. Systemic Issues with Intelligence Assessments Flynn Effect: IQ scores across much of the world have generally increased over time due to societal factors Higher socioeconomic status Access to better health care Better nutrition. IQ scores tend to vary more within a group than between groups. Personal and sociocultural biases can impact the interpretation of individual IQ scores and the score’s relationship with other outcomes. Poverty discrimination and educational inequalities can negatively influence intelligence scores of individuals and societal groups around the world. Stereotype Threat Def: Social identity threat that occurs when someone is at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about their group. Researchers strive to develop assessments of intelligence that are socio-culturally responsive to reduce stereotype threat and potential inequity that may occur due to stereotype lift. Who is this most likely to impact? How might this relate to school? Careers?