Psychology: Visual Perception and Concepts

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Questions and Answers

What term describes the phenomenon where a person falsely remembers information due to misleading cues?

Confabulation

Dissonance Theory

Schema Consistency

Misinformation Effect (correct)

Which perspective emphasizes the influence of unconscious processes on memory and behavior?

Behavioral Perspective

Cognitive Perspective

Psychodynamic Perspective (correct)

Humanistic Perspective

Which of the following storage types is characterized by brief retention of sensory information?

Short-term memory

Sensory memory (correct)

Working memory

Long-term memory

What memory phenomenon refers to the difficulty in recalling a familiar word while being able to remember similar words?

Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon Signup and view all the answers

What memory type is often enhanced by relating new information to one's own life experiences?

Elaborative Rehearsal Signup and view all the answers

What is the best definition of false memories?

Mental experiences that people believe accurately represent past events Signup and view all the answers

Which technique is most associated with organizing items into manageable units to enhance memory?

Chunking Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of the misinformation effect primarily illustrate?

Memories can change based on misleading information presented after an event. Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon occurs when unused connections in the brain lead to memory loss over time?

Storage decay Signup and view all the answers

Which method is commonly used to enhance memory by visualizing items in specific locations?

Method of Loci Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily affected in anterograde amnesia?

The ability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of the psychodynamic perspective in understanding memory?

The influence of unconscious motives on memory accuracy Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following strategies can substantially help in improving long-term memory retention?

Reduction of encoding failures through attention Signup and view all the answers

What does confabulation involve?

Filling in gaps in memory with incorrect information Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the misinformation effect?

Incorporating misleading information into one's memory Signup and view all the answers

According to the psychodynamic perspective, what role does repression play in memory?

Defending the ego from distressing memories Signup and view all the answers

How does Spearman's general intelligence (g) concept relate to mental abilities?

It proposes a single underlying ability that influences all mental tasks. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors could affect the accuracy of memory?

Misinformation and source amnesia Signup and view all the answers

What is proactive interference?

Old information hinders the recall of new information Signup and view all the answers

Which phenomenon involves the integration of misleading details into an individual's recollections?

Misinformation effect Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism do psychodynamic theorists suggest helps defend the ego?

Repression of painful memories Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Visual Perception Constancy
- Visual perception constancy involves perceiving objects as unchanging despite changes in sensory input.
- Key constancies include size, color, and shape.
Concepts & Prototypes
- Formal concepts have clearly defined characteristics and agreed-upon rules.
- Examples include triangles, elements in the periodic table, and animals.
- Natural concepts lack clearly defined characteristics or agreed-upon rules.
- Examples include chair, mom, and anger.
- Prototypes are mental images representing the best examples of a particular concept.

Prototypes

Prototypes serve as the ideal examples for a given concept.
They are a mental framework for how we understand concepts.

Algorithms

An algorithm is a process or set of steps used to solve a problem.
Algorithms systematically address problems by attempting every possible solution until the correct one is found.

Heuristics

A heuristic is a general rule based on experience used to make decisions quickly.
It is often described as a "rule of thumb," offering a practical approach.
Examples include using shortcuts, relying on past experiences, and mental shortcuts. They often lead to errors.

Availability Heuristics

Availability heuristics involve recalling the first or most vivid example that comes to mind.
This influences judgment, potentially leading to inaccurate decisions.

Representative Heuristics

Decisions made based on prior expectations or stereotypes rather than facts.

Priming & Framing

Priming occurs when previous exposure to a related stimulus influences a person's response to a new stimulus.
Framing refers to a cognitive bias influencing decisions based on how information is presented.

Poor Decision-Making Cognitive Processes

Gambler's Fallacy: The false belief that a random event's probability changes based on previous outcomes.
Sunk-Cost Fallacy: Reluctance to abandon a strategy or course of action due to prior investment, even if it's not beneficial.

Executive Functions

Executive functions are cognitive processes allowing individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors.
They support critical thinking.

Creativity

Insight is a sudden understanding that comes after an incubation period involving unconscious processing.
Divergent thinking involves generating diverse possible solutions or ideas while convergent thinking narrows down the possibilities to a single solution.
Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias limiting a person's ability to use an object in a new or inventive way.

Top-Down & Bottom-Up Processing

Bottom-up processing involves directly receiving sensory input and using it to construct perceptions.
Top-down processing uses existing knowledge, experience, and expectations to inform how we perceive sensory input.

Schemas & Perceptual Sets

Schemas are mental tendencies and assumptions affecting how we interpret new information and perceive the world.
Perceptual sets are contexts, experiences, and cultural background that shape our perceptions.

Perception & Culture

Experiences play a crucial role in shaping individual perceptions based on expectations and cultural background.

Gestalt Principles

Gestalt principles describe how people perceive objects and situations as a whole rather than individual parts.
Key Gestalt principles include figure-ground, proximity, closure, similarity, common region, continuity, and symmetry.

Closure, Proximity

Our tendency to perceive visual elements grouped together as a whole, or to complete incomplete shapes.

Similarity, Continuity & Figure Ground

Grouping similar elements together.
Perceiving continuous lines in a complex image.
Instantly perceiving objects as foreground or background in an image.

Memory

Memory processes differentiate learned knowledge, events, and experience based on processing, storage, and retrieval.
These processes can be affected by different types of memory—short-term, long-term, etc.—which differ in capacity, duration, and encoding.

Effortful v. Automatic Processing

Effortful processing requires conscious attention for encoding information.
Automatic processing involves unconscious encoding of incidental information, like space, time, and frequency, or well-learned information, such as word meanings.

Deep v. Shallow Processing

Shallow processing involves encoding information based on appearance or structure.
Deep processing involves semantically encoding information based on meaning.

Metacognition

Metacognition involves awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

Review: Long-term Potentiation

Synaptic connections between neurons strengthen with frequent activation.
This process is crucial for memory.

Review Multi-Store Model of Memory

Sensory memory is a brief storage of information.
Working memory temporarily holds and processes information.
Long-term memory stores information for extended periods.

Review Levels of Processing Model

Memory encoding occurs on three levels: shallow (structural), intermediate (phonemic), and deep (semantic).
Deeper processing usually produces better memory retention.

Encoding

Encoding is the process by which information gets actively stored in memory.
Visual, acoustic, and semantic encoding are different methods—semantic encoding is usually more effective.

Memory Consolidation

Consolidation refers to the process of transforming temporary memories into more enduring, stable long-term memories.

Primacy & Recency

The serial position effect influences memory by our better recall of information presented early or recently.

Storage

Memory storage refers to the retention of encoded information.
Schemas are mental models used to organize information.

Storage (Multiple Memory Systems)

Sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory differ in duration, capacity, and encoding.

Prolonging Storage

Maintenance rehearsal involves repetition to keep information in short-term memory.
Elaborative rehearsal involves associating new information with existing knowledge for more effective encoding.

Storage (Superior Memory)

Some superior memory abilities may be biological processes, explaining why autobiographical memories are better recalled.
Disease and impairment can impact memory storage processes and create difficulties with memory.

Retrieval

Retrieval is the process of getting information out of memory.
Recall and recognition differ in how information is retrieved; recognition often easier than recall.
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon describes the feeling of knowing a word but temporarily being unable to recall it.

False Memories

False memories are mental experiences that appear accurate, but are not.
These can be induced or created through suggestion or other factors influencing memory.

Strategies to Improve Memory

Spacing effect, chunking, elaborative rehearsal, and mnemonic devices are techniques to improve various aspects of memory.

Forgetting Decay

Encoding failure can cause memory decay due to insufficient attention given to information to properly encode and store it in long-term memory.
Unused neural pathways lead to memory decay.

Forgetting Interference

Proactive interference occurs when old information interferes with the recall of new information.
Retroactive interference occurs when recently learned information disrupts the recall of previously learned information.

Forgetting Cues & Interference

Retrieval cues are stimuli that help in recalling information.
Interference is a common cause of forgetting, divided into proactive and retroactive interference.
Sigmund Freud's concept of repression, confabulation, and the misinformation effect relate to how memories can be lost due to associated experiences.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Psychodynamic theories emphasize the role of unconscious processes in memory, including repression.
Repression occurs when information or memories get forgotten to defend against emotional distress.

Accuracy of Memories

External factors and internal biases affect memory accuracy.
Misinformation effect, source amnesia, and constructive memory can negatively impact the recall of the accuracy of an event.

Theories of Intelligence: Spearman's g

General intelligence (g) underlies all mental abilities in Spearman's theory.
This theory suggests a single factor accounts for intelligence.

Theories of Intelligence: Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner proposed multiple types of intelligence, including visual-spatial, linguistic-verbal, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic.

Theories of Intelligence: Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

Sternberg's triarchic theory proposes three aspects of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical.

Theories of Intelligence: Crystallized & Fluid Intelligence

Crystallized intelligence involves acquired knowledge and skills over time; it increases with age.
Fluid intelligence involves problem-solving and reasoning abilities; it tends to decrease as people age.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Wechsler

Wechsler developed intelligence tests for different age groups
Z-scores represent how far a score deviates from the mean.

Measuring Intelligence

Standardized testing procedures and environments are crucial for accurate intelligence testing measurement.
Validity and reliability of intelligence tests are important.

Intelligence Testing: Reliability & Validity

Test reliability assesses the consistency of measurements.
Test validity ensures that a test measures what it intends to measure.

Systemic Issues with Intelligence Assessments

Societal factors can affect intelligence scores.
IQ scores vary significantly within groups more than between groups, implying individuals from different societies have varying scores due to cultural factors.
Biases can lead to erroneous interpretations of IQ scores.

Stereotype Threat

Stereotype threat is a social identity threat causing a concern that one's performance will confirm negative stereotypes.
This can impact assessments, especially intelligence tests.

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Description

This quiz covers key aspects of visual perception constancy, including size, color, and shape. It also explores concepts and prototypes, the role of algorithms, and heuristics in problem-solving. Test your understanding of these psychological principles and how they shape our perception and cognition.