UTS Finals: The Self From Various Perspectives PDF

GE2405 THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES Hey there, fellow explorer! Ever felt like you're on a quest to uncover the secrets of who you really are? Well, buckle up because, in this module, we're diving headfirst into the world of the self—from philosophical ponderings to everything in between. THE SELF FROM PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES The self is like a puzzle that philosophers have been trying to solve for ages. As you read this module, experience a journey full of big questions and ideas into the world of philosophy to uncover some insights about the self. Socrates Socrates was an ancient Greek philosopher who emphasized the importance of self-knowledge. He mentioned the philosophical maxim, “Know thyself.” He believed that true wisdom comes from introspection and self-examination. Acknowledging ignorance improves receptivity to new perspectives, situational adaptation, and personal development. Socratic dialogues, such as "The Apology" and "The Phaedrus," illustrate his teachings on the self. Example: Maria is unsure about her career path. She thinks about what she loves and what matters to her, as Socrates suggested. Despite pressure to choose a well-paying job she doesn’t like, Maria picks a career that matches her interests and values. This shows Socrates’ idea of knowing yourself and living true to who you are. Plato Plato was an ancient Greek philosopher who argued that the self is immortal and independent of the body, with the highest knowledge derived from contemplating the Form of the Good. Plato believed that the self comprises three parts: reason, spirit, and appetite. Plato's tripartite theory of the soul suggests that harmony among these parts leads to a virtuous life and a just society. Example: Jack is torn between studying for an important exam or playing video games. His mind says to study, but his desires pull him to play. He listens to his mind and chooses to study. This shows Plato’s idea that our soul has different parts: the rational part and the desire-driven part. In this case, Jack’s rational part wins, showing how we balance our desires with what’s right. Aristotle Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. He was also a student of Plato for twenty years but is widely recognized for rejecting Plato's Theory of Forms. Aristotle argued that the self or the human person is a composite of body and soul and that the two are inseparable. Aristotle’s concept of self was constructed in terms of hylomorphism. We cannot discuss the self with a soul only or a self with a body only. Indeed, for Aristotle, the self is a unified creature. Example: Toby loves dancing. According to Aristotle, when Toby dances, his physical movements express not just his skills (body) but also his emotions and passion (soul). This shows how his body and soul are inseparable—they work together to convey his inner feelings and creativity through dance. 01 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 1 of 4 GE2405 Saint Augustine Augustine of Hippo was a theologian and philosopher who viewed the self as deeply intertwined with God. He believed that the human soul longs for union with God, its ultimate source of fulfillment and happiness. Augustine's concept of the self is rooted in the idea of original sin inherited from Adam and Eve, which leads to a sense of spiritual longing and discontent. Through God’s grace, we find self- fulfillment. Example: Emma is struggling to tell the truth or keep a secret. Part of her feels the urge to be honest, while another part fears the consequences. After reflecting on her values, Emma chooses honesty. This reflects Augustine’s view that our inner conflict between selfish desires and moral convictions influences our choices and shapes our character. René Descartes Descartes was a French philosopher, scientist, and mathematician who proposed dualism, which separates the self into distinct entities: mind and body. He famously declared, “Cogito, ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am), asserting that self-awareness proves one's existence. Descartes associated the mind with consciousness and the body with mechanical processes, locating the self in the mind. Example: You’re unsure if everything around you is real. But then you realize the fact that you’re thinking about it proves you exist. This is Descartes’ “I think, therefore I am.” It means your ability to think shows you’re a real person with thoughts and awareness. John Locke Locke was an English philosopher and physician who proposed a theory of the self based on consciousness and personal identity. He believed that people begin life as a Tabula rasa or a blank slate. He viewed the self as knowing and experiencing our own existence. He thought that as long as you remember being yourself at different times, you're still the same person, even if your body changes. For Locke, the self is shaped by our life experiences. Example: David reflects on his childhood memories and favorite activities and how those experiences shaped their beliefs and preferences today. This process of connecting past memories with their present identity illustrates Locke’s concept of self as a continuous stream of consciousness linked by memories and personal experiences. David Hume Hume was a Scottish Enlightenment philosopher, historian, economist, librarian, and essayist who rejected the notion of a fixed and enduring self. In his Bundle Theory, he argued that the self is nothing but a bundle of perceptions, thoughts, and sensations. Hume proposed that the sense of self is an illusion created by the mind from the flow of experiences. Example: Barbara enjoys various hobbies and changes her opinions as she grows older. According to Hume, there isn’t a single, unchanging “self” behind these changes. Instead, our sense of self is like a collection of experiences and feelings that shift over time. This idea means our identity isn’t fixed; it evolves as we go through life’s experiences and learn new things. 01 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 2 of 4 GE2405 Immanuel Kant Kant was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Kant’s concept of self revolves around the idea of the inner self (transcendental self) and the outer self (empirical self.)The inner self includes our emotions and rational intellect. The outer self is our physical body and how we engage with the world through our senses. It’s what others can see and perceive about us. In short, the inner self is about our mind and intellect, while the outer self is about our body and how we interact with the physical world. Example: You’re learning how to play the piano. According to Kant, your inner self –the thinking subject or “I think” – is what allows you to be aware of yourself as the one learning and playing the music. It’s like the part of you that’s conscious of your thoughts and actions, guiding your learning process. Meanwhile, your outer self is your observable aspect, including your physical body as you sit at the piano, your movements as you play the keys, and the sounds you produce. Others can see and hear your outer self as you interact with the piano and the music. In this example, Kant’s concept of self involves both the inner self, which is aware of your learning and actions, and the outer self, which others can observe as you engage with the external world. Sigmund Freud Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis. Freud’s concept of self focused on the ego, which is one of the three parts of the psyche according to his psychoanalytic theory. The ego served as a mediator between the superego (societal rules) and the id (instinctual drives) demands. It seeks to satisfy the id’s desires in socially acceptable ways. Thus, the dynamic interaction between societal standards, unconscious wants, and logical decision-making processes is highlighted by Freud's idea of the self. Example: Chester wants to eat a lot of cake but decides to eat a little because he knows it’s healthier. This shows Freud’s idea of the self, where our decisions balance what we want (like eating cake) with what we know is right (like being healthy). Gilbert Ryle Ryle was a British philosopher known for his critique of Cartesian dualism, for which he coined the phrase “ghost in the machine” and argued that the self isn’t a hidden entity inside us. Instead, he said our self is shown through our actions and behaviors. He believed that talking about an inner self is a mistake – it confuses things. He believed the self is just how we act and behave in the world, not some hidden ghost inside us. Example: Sarah always helps others without expecting anything in return. According to Ryle, Sarah’s self isn’t some mysterious inner essence; it’s simply her helpful actions and behaviors. So, when we talk about Sarah’s self, we’re really talking about how she behaves and interacts with others, not some hidden part of her. 01 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 3 of 4 GE2405 Paul Churchland Churchland is a Canadian philosopher known for his studies in neurophilosophy, or the philosophy of mind. He viewed the self as a product of brain activity rather than a separate entity. He believed that science could explain how we understand ourselves by studying the brain. Example: Benedict tries learning how to play the guitar. As he practices, his brain physically changes and adapts. According to Churchland, these changes in the brain shape how the person sees himself and what they’re capable of, showing our sense of self is tied to our brain’s physical processes. Maurice Merleau-Ponty Merleau-Ponty was a French philosopher who believed the self is shaped by our physical body and how we experience the world through our senses. He emphasized that our sense of self is connected to our interactions with the environment rather than a separate entity. For him, the self develops over time, influenced by past experiences and future aspirations. He rejected the idea of dualism. Example: Joseph expresses himself through dance. For Merleau-Ponty, their sense of self isn’t just in their thoughts but is shaped by the sensations, movements, and interactions they experience while dancing. The dance becomes a way for them to embody and express their identity, showing how our sense of self is inseparable from our bodily experiences and interactions with the world. References: Ashcroft, R. (2023, April 8). What does “I think, therefore I am” really mean? The Collector. https://www.thecollector.com/what-does-i-think-therefore-i-am-mean/. Blog, J. (2019, March 28). Hume’s theory on the enduring self. Medium. https://medium.com/@jeevanv/humes- theory-on-the-enduring-self-d591f30b90cc. Fruhling, Z. (2020, May 26). Being a stranger to yourself — The many meanings of “Know Thyself”. Zachary Fruhling.https://www.zacharyfruhling.com/philosophy-blog/being-a-stranger-to-yourself-the-many-meanings-of- know-thyself. Theepak.(2022, December 24). Socrates’ view on Self-Development. Medium. https://medium.com/@theepak/socrates-view-on-self-development-c0fb9753a2f9. 01 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 4 of 4 GE2405 THE SELF FROM SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Imagine yourself as a puzzle. Each piece (e.g., family, school, peers, etc.) represents a different social influence that contributes to shaping who you are. Society significantly influences our identity, our thoughts, feelings, and actions from birth. Discover the sociological perspectives on the self in this module. The Self as a Product of Modern Society Among Other Constructions Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929) was an American sociologist known for his theory, “Looking-Glass Self,” which describes how our self-image is shaped by how we think others see us. It’s like seeing ourselves reflected in a mirror, but the mirror is the opinions and reactions of others. Cooley outlined three stages in the development of the looking-glass self: 1. Imagination: We imagine how we appear to others – We envision how others might view our actions and behaviors. Example: Joshua is a student giving a presentation. He imagines how his classmates perceive his body language, tone of voice, and content knowledge. 2. Interpretation: We imagine how others judge us – We consider the reactions and judgments of others towards our behaviors. Example: Joshua imagines his classmates think he is confident or nervous based on his presentation style. 3. Self-feeling: We develop our self-concept – Based on these perceptions, we form an understanding of ourselves. Our self-concept is shaped by the feedback and responses we receive from others. Example: After receiving compliments on a presentation, Joshua feels confident and capable. He believes his classmates admire his skills. Mead and the Social Self George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) was an American philosopher, sociologist, and psychologist who developed the Social Self Theory, which asserts that personal identity is formed through social interaction and cultural expectations. It outlines elements or aspects like role-taking, the separation between "I" and "Me," and the influence of significant others and generalized others on identity formation in social contexts. Mead viewed the self as formed by social interaction and communication. Refer to the table below. 02 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 1 of 3 GE2405 The aspect of Explanation Example Mead’s Social Self Theory The “I” and the The “I” is the spontaneous aspect of the Playing basketball: “I” wants to “Me” self. It is the part that acts without win, and “Me” follows the rules. considering social consequences, while the “Me” is a socialized aspect shaped by social expectations and norms. It is the self that acts based on how others expect one to behave. Role-Taking We develop a sense of self by imagining Classroom presentation: how others perceive us and adjusting our Imagining classmates’ reactions. behavior accordingly. Significant Others Significant others have a direct influence on Parents’ influence on self- and Generalized the person (e.g., parents) and Generalized concept; Society’s norms. Others others represent society’s collective norms and expectations individuals internalize. (e.g., society). Mead found that children initially only adopt the roles of significant others. As they develop, they start to understand and adopt the expectations of others and eventually those of the entire group (generalized others). Mead's Social Self Theory Stages of Self-Development According to Mead, the development of the self goes through stages: 1. Preparatory Stage (Imitation) – The preparatory stage starts from birth to age two (2). Within this stage, children copy others but don’t understand their actions, words, or tone of voice. Example: A baby imitates the sounds made by the parents or a toddler copying the actions of the older siblings like clapping hands or waving goodbye. 2. Play Stage (Taking on Roles) – The play stage occurs from about ages three (3) to six (6). During this period, children engage in imaginative play. They pretend and still do not follow the rules within organized games. Children would ‘pretend’ to be “mother” or “father,” depending on their observation. Example: A child playing house, acting as the mother and caring for her toy children, or a child pretending to teach other kids or toys. 02 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 2 of 3 GE2405 3. Game Stage (Understanding Multiple Roles) – The game stage typically begins at age seven (7). Children start to comprehend and follow the rules of games, take on roles independently, and consider others’ perspectives, forming the concept of “generalized others.” Example: A child playing baseball, understanding the roles of pitcher, catcher, and outfielder simultaneously, or a child participating in a school play, coordinating actions with other crew members, and following the director’s script. In essence, Mead concluded that society shapes both our minds and our sense of self. Our minds rely on symbols, and our society hands us these symbols through language. It's like a secret code we all learn together. Think of yourself as a work in progress, constantly evolving and shaped by all sorts of adventures. Keep on growing! Reference: Matt. (2020, February 27). Mead’s Stages of Self and Development. Info by Matt Cole. https://infobymattcole.com/index.php/2020/02/27/meads-stages-of-self-and-development/. Nam. (n.d.). Socialized Self: George Herbert Mead’s self, mind, and society. https://www.everythingsociology.com/2014/03/socialization-george-herbert-meads-self.html. 02 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 3 of 3 GE2405 THE SELF FROM ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Have you ever wondered what living in different parts of the world is like today? Can you imagine working in Korea or growing up in a quiet village in the Himalayas? How have societies changed over time, and how have humans evolved? Anthropologists explore these questions. This module offers a fascinating look at how cultures shape who we are. Anthropology The word "anthropology" is derived from the Greek words anthropos (“human”) and logia (“study”). Anthropology is the study of people throughout the world—today, yesterday, and long ago. Subdisciplines of Anthropology 1. Cultural Anthropology – It is also known as ‘social anthropology.’ It studies the learned behavior of groups of people in specific environments. Example: Studying the practices, beliefs, traditions, rituals, and ceremonies of the Ifugao in the Cordillera Region 2. Linguistic Anthropology – It is the study of how language influences social life. Example: Studying the languages spoken by Indigenous communities in Mindanao and documenting how language reflects their cultural values, social organization, and ecological knowledge 3. Biological/Physical Anthropology – It focuses on human evolution within the context of human culture and behavior. Example: Conducting research on the genetic diversity among different ethnic groups in the Philippines 4. Archaeology – It interprets human history by analyzing material remains to interpret the experiences and activities of individuals and civilizations throughout history. Example: Excavating ancient burial sites in Batangas and uncovering artifacts such as burial jars and gold ornaments The Self and Person in Contemporary Anthropology In contemporary anthropology, studying the self and person involves key aspects. Anthropologists emphasize that norms, values, and social practices culturally shape the self. They explore how individuals perceive themselves and manage their identities within cultural contexts. Social relationships within communities also play a crucial role in shaping self-perception and behavior. Symbols, rituals, and cultural behaviors contribute significantly to forming individual and group identities. Anthropology also examines how globalization and cultural exchange impact identity in diverse societies, influencing how individuals adapt to or resist cultural changes. 03 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 1 of 3 GE2405 The Self as Embedded in Culture In understanding how societies influence the identities we are part of, it is essential to understand the self within culture. Anthropologists Clifford Geertz and Margaret Mead emphasized the importance of not only our characteristics but also our perception of ourselves within the wider cultural context. Clifford Geertz (1926 – 2006) Clifford James Geertz was an American anthropologist who contributed to his theories of interpretive anthropology and symbolic significance. Below are the most essential aspects of his contributions. 1. Symbolic Anthropology – Geertz argued that cultural symbols and meanings significantly influence individual identities. Example: In Moroccan souks (market), items like spices or rugs carry symbolic meanings beyond their economic value. Interactions in the souk aren't just transactions but performances reflecting social status and cultural values, demonstrating how cultural norms and values shape personal identity. 2. Cultural Embeddedness – Geertz believed that individuals' sense of self is deeply rooted in cultural contexts. Cultural symbols, rituals, and social norms shape how people perceive themselves and their roles in society. Example: Javanese Shadow Puppet Theater (Wayang Kulit) symbolizes moral ideals and plays a crucial role in religious ceremonies, reflecting and shaping Javanese cultural identity. 3. Performance and Interpretation – Geertz explored social performance, where individuals express and negotiate identities through interactions and interpretations of cultural symbols. The self is not fixed but is continuously negotiated and expressed through these performances. Example: In Indian classical dance like Bharatanatyam or Kathak, dancers use gestures to portray Hindu mythological stories. Audiences interpret these performances based on their cultural knowledge, connecting emotionally with the narrative. Such dances are integral to cultural events, strengthening community ties and shaping cultural identity. Margaret Mead (1901–1978) Margaret Mead was an American cultural anthropologist best known for her studies on cultural relativism, gender roles, and socialization. Below are the most essential aspects of her contributions. 1. Cultural Relativity – Mead showed how cultures have unique norms and values that shape individual identities. Example: Margaret Mead studied the Arapesh tribe in Papua New Guinea and found that both men and women showed nurturing behaviors, caring for others equally. It was different from Western beliefs where nurturing roles are often seen as only for women. Her research showed that gender roles vary across cultures, highlighting how culture shapes identities and social roles. 2. Socialization and Learning – Mead explored how individuals learn cultural norms through upbringing and social interactions. 03 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 2 of 3 GE2405 Example: Margaret Mead studied the Manus people in Papua New Guinea. She observed that Manus children learn societal norms through communal caregiving, observing rituals, and joining ceremonies. This socialization process shapes their roles and identities within the community, showing how culture influences individual development. 3. Flexibility of Identity – Unlike some thinkers, Mead argued that identities are adaptable across cultures. Example: Margaret Mead studied the Tchambuli (Chambri) tribe in Papua New Guinea. She discovered that women held dominant roles in economic and social life while men focused on expressive and artistic activities. These challenges fixed gender roles and show how cultural norms reshape identities in diverse societies. In essence, while both Geertz and Mead highlight the cultural construction of self, Geertz's approach focuses on symbolic interpretation and performance within specific cultural settings. In contrast, Mead's perspective explores the diversity of identities shaped by cultural norms and socialization processes across different societies. Reference: Corpuz, R., et al. (2019). Understanding the Self. C & E Publishing, Inc. Go-Monilla, J., & Ramirez, N. (2018). Understanding the self. Philippines: C & E Publishing, Inc. American Museum of Natural History. (n.d.). What is Anthropology? https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/anthropology/what-is- anthropology#:~:text=The%20word%20%22anthropology%22%20comes%20from,%2C%20yesterday%2C%20and% 20long%20ago.&text=Anthropologists%20study%20people%20from%20every,eat%2C%20celebrate%2C%20or%20 worship. Clifford Geertz: Work and Legacy. (2020, October 13). Institute for Advanced Study. https://www.ias.edu/clifford- geertz-work-and-legacy. History and branches of anthropology. (n.d.). https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/history-branches-anthropology/. 03 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 3 of 3 GE2405 THE SELF FROM PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Have you ever considered the influence of our subconscious mind on how we perceive ourselves? This module explores the psychology behind our self-perception. The Self as a Cognitive Construction Our self-awareness is constantly influenced by cognitive processes such as perception, interpretation, and memory. It emphasizes the dynamic nature of the individual that features its evolution through personal experiences, beliefs, and social interactions. This perspective indicates that our self-concept is flexible and changes as we incorporate new information and reinterpret our experiences, which shape how we perceive ourselves and the environment. William James’ Self Theory (“I” self vs. “Me” self) William James was an American psychologist and philosopher who proposed that an individual's perception of self consists of two categories: I and Me. Two Aspects of the Self “I” self – This is how we experience ourselves in the present moment, including our thoughts, feelings, and actions. It’s about being aware of ourselves as we live and reacting in real time. Examples: When you reflect on your thoughts and feelings about a recent experience, such as contemplating how you felt during a challenging conversation. Deciding based on your values and preferences, like choosing a career path that aligns with your passions. “Me” self – This is the objective part of ourselves, made up of our traits, roles, and how we see ourselves based on past experiences and social feedback. It’s more stable and forms our enduring self-image. Examples: Identifying yourself as a student, friend, or sibling based on your roles in different social contexts. Recognizing your physical attributes, such as being tall or having blue eyes, which contributes to self- perception. Global model vs. Differentiated model Understanding cultural differences is crucial in today's interconnected world. Scholars use global and differentiated models to study these differences, focusing on universal patterns and uniqueness within each context. Global Model – This model highlights how traits, values, and self-concept remain consistent across different situations, suggesting that fundamental aspects of the self define one's identity regardless of external factors. It proposes that personality traits and core values endure and shape behavior consistently over time and across diverse cultural contexts. Example: Harper is known for her kindness and patience among friends, family, and colleagues. Whether helping a friend through a tough time, resolving conflicts at work, or spending time with family, Harper 04 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 1 of 5 GE2405 consistently demonstrates these traits. It illustrates how her personality traits remain stable and define her identity across various social contexts. Differentiated Model – This refers to a psychological and interpersonal theory developed by Murray Bowen, a psychiatrist and researcher in the field of family therapy. Differentiation of Self 1. Intrapsychic Differentiation – It is when we can tell apart our thoughts from our emotions. Example: Paul might decide to pursue his own career goals despite family expectations, like choosing art over medicine because it’s what he truly wants for himself. 2. Interpersonal Differentiation – It is when we can distinguish our experience from the experience of people we are connected to. Example: Adrian might respectfully disagree with a close friend’s political views without feeling the need to argue or distance himself. It allows him to maintain individuality while nurturing relationships. Overall, Bowen's theory emphasizes how these forms of differentiation contribute to individual and relational health within families and broader social contexts. Carl Rogers’ Self Theory (Real vs. Ideal Self) Carl Rogers, a key figure in humanistic psychology, introduced a theory of self-focusing on personal growth and fulfillment. His theory distinguishes between the real self (one's current identity) and the ideal self (aspirations). It is crucial to understand how individuals perceive themselves and aim for harmony in their lives. Rogers' insights explore the dynamics of personal identity and psychological well- being. Real Self – It refers to how individuals perceive themselves currently, including their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors based on their actual experiences and self-reflection. Example: John believes he is a reliable and hardworking employee who consistently meets deadlines and contributes effectively to team projects. This perception of himself reflects his real self based on his actual behaviors and self-assessment. Ideal Self – It refers to the person we aspire to be, reflecting our goals, values, and envisioned accomplishments for personal growth and fulfillment. It represents our highest aspirations and the best version of ourselves that we aim to achieve. Example: Samantha aspires to become a skilled public speaker who confidently delivers engaging presentations to large audiences. She envisions engaging others through her articulate communication skills. This vision represents Samantha's ideal self, reflecting her aspirations and goals for personal growth and achievement. 04 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 2 of 5 GE2405 David Lester’s Theory (Multiple vs. Unified Selves) David Lester is a psychologist renowned for his research in suicide prevention, personality assessment, and humanistic psychology. His work explores individual differences and the complexities of human behavior, bridging psychological theory with practical applications for mental health. He introduced the concept of multiple and unified selves within the framework of psychology. Multiple Selves – Individuals can exhibit different identities or behaviors in various situations or roles. Example: Julia acts confidently at work but is more reserved in social settings with friends, demonstrating different aspects of her personality in other contexts. Unified Self – It refers to a cohesive identity that integrates various aspects of the self into a harmonious whole. Example: Emily maintains a stable self-concept that aligns with her values and beliefs across different life domains. Donald W. Winnicott’s Theory (True Self vs. False Self) Donald Woods Winnicott was a famous psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, and English pediatrician who developed an interesting approach to the human personality. He introduced the concept of the true self and the false self. True Self – It represents the authentic and innate qualities of an individual. It reflects one’s core identity and genuine feelings. Example: William pursues a career in music because he has a deep passion for it, despite societal pressures to choose a more conventional profession. False Self – It refers to a protective persona formed in response to external pressures, expectations, or traumas. It masks the true self to cope with social demands or avoid rejection. Example: Oliver pretends to like certain music or fashion trends just to fit in with a particular peer group, hiding his true preferences. Winnicott believed nurturing the true self fosters psychological well-being, while excessive reliance on the false self can lead to inner conflict and emotional distress. The Self as a Proactive and Agentic by Albert Bandura Albert Bandura was a Canadian-born American psychologist best known for his social learning theory, the concept of self-efficacy, and his famous Bobo doll experiments, which emphasized the proactive nature of human agency. Proactive behavior– It refers to self-initiated behavior aimed at addressing problems before they arise. 04 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 3 of 5 GE2405 Example: A student takes the initiative to organize a study group, prepares study materials in advance, and actively participates in discussions to enhance their understanding of the subject. Agentic behavior – It refers to the ability to control one’s goals, actions, and destinies. Example: An entrepreneur identifies a market opportunity, develops a business plan, secures funding, and takes proactive steps to launch and grow their startup, demonstrating agency in pursuing entrepreneurial goals. Bandura’s concept of human agency underscores that individuals actively shape their actions, thoughts, and environments. By making deliberate decisions, setting clear goals, and taking decisive steps to achieve desired outcomes, individuals exercise the authority to influence and direct their lives according to their beliefs and intentions. This concept emphasizes that individuals are not passive recipients of circumstances but active agents who can control their lives through their beliefs and actions. Four (4) Core Properties of Human Agency 1. Intentionality – It refers to setting goals and making plans to achieve something. Example: Luna sets a goal to become a more confident public speaker. She decides to enroll in a public speaking course and commits to practicing regularly. 2. Forethought – It refers to thinking ahead and planning actions based on expected outcomes. Example: Before each presentation, Luna visualizes herself delivering her speech confidently. She prepares by organizing her thoughts, creating visual aids, and rehearsing her delivery. 3. Self-reactiveness – It refers to monitoring and evaluating one’s behavior and emotions. Example: During her first presentation, Luna notices that she speaks too quickly and feels nervous. She acknowledges this feedback from her instructor and classmates, recognizing the need to improve her pacing and manage her anxiety. 4. Self-reflection – It refers to rewarding or adjusting behaviors based on self-evaluation and feedback. Example: Luna addresses her challenges by practicing speaking slower, using relaxation techniques before presentations, and seeking feedback from peers to improve her delivery. She celebrates small successes and adjusts her approach as she learns and progresses. Reference: Corpuz, R., et al. (2019). Understanding the Self. C & E Publishing, Inc. The Bowen Center for the Study of the Family. (n.d.). Differentiation of self. https://www.thebowencenter.org/differentiation-of-self. Main, P. (2022, January 20). Carl Rogers’ theory. Structural Learning. https://www.structural- learning.com/post/carl-rogers-theory. Michael. (2018, July 26). Donald Winnicott and His Theory about the False Self. Exploring Your Mind. https://exploringyourmind.com/donald-winnicott-and-his-theory-about-the-false-self/. 04 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 4 of 5 GE2405 MSEd, K. C. (2022a, November 7). What is Self-Concept? Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is- self-concept-2795865. MSEd, K. C. (2024, June 25). Self-efficacy and why believing in yourself matters. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-self-efficacy-2795954. Sansom, T. (2024, June 2). True or false: Winnicott’s notions of self. The Weekend University. https://theweekenduniversity.com/true-or-false-winnicotts-notions-of-self/. Simply Psychology. (2024, February 2). Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory. https://www.simplypsychology.org/social-cognitive-theory.html. The School of Life. (2024, March 12). The true and the false self. https://www.theschooloflife.com/article/the-true- and-the-false-self/. 04 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 5 of 5 GE2405 THE SELF IN WESTERN AND EASTERN THOUGHT Do we live for ourselves or others? Are we chasing self-discovery and fulfillment or working for the greater good? That's where Western and Eastern views on the self differ. How do these perspectives shape our understanding of identity and our place in the world? This module deals with the concept of self in Western and Eastern thoughts. Individualistic vs. Collective Self The individualistic self refers to a person's identity and sense of worth that is primarily characterized by their unique attributes, preferences, and achievements. It values personal autonomy, self-expression, and pursuing individual goals and aspirations. Example: Kate is a student who sets personal academic goals and works diligently to achieve them, focusing on her own grades and accomplishments rather than comparing herself to classmates. Individualistic culture strongly emphasizes personal goals, independence, and self-reliance. It prioritizes individual rights, freedom of choice, and personal accomplishments over group or collective interests. A few examples of countries known for their individualistic cultures include: o The United States of America o Australia o Canada o United Kingdom o Germany The collective self refers to a person's identity and sense of worth that is closely tied to their group memberships, relationships, and roles within their community. It prioritizes group harmony and fulfilling communal expectations over individual desires or achievements. Example: James actively participates in environmental activism, joining local community clean-up efforts and advocating for sustainable practices to benefit his neighborhood and city. Collectivist culture emphasizes group harmony, cooperation, and the well-being of the community over individual goals. It values loyalty to the group, interdependence, and shared responsibilities. Here are a few examples of countries known for their collectivist cultures: o Japan o China o South Korea o Philippines The Social Construction of the Self in Western Thought The Western concept of the self is individualistic, focusing on freedom, choice, and independence from cultural influence. It emphasizes the uniqueness of each person, egoism, and the idea of a distinct self separate from others. Individualism stresses personal goals, self-realization, and autonomy in decision- making. It does NOT advocate isolation but encourages forming relationships based on personal beliefs and judgments. People engendered in an individualistic culture might describe themselves in terms of personality traits and characteristics, e.g., “I am brave, generous, loyal, and honest.” 05 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 1 of 2 GE2405 The Self as Embedded in Relationships and Through Spiritual Development in Confucian Thought Confucius, born Kongqui in 551 B.C., was China's most influential teacher and philosopher, who has profoundly influenced the Chinese and East Asian civilizations. Confucianism views individuals as part of a larger group rather than separate entities. It centers on human relationships, exemplified by the Five Cardinal Relationships: those between ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, elder brother and younger brother, and friends. Harmony is achieved when each person fulfills their duties. According to Confucius, individual identity is shaped by the group they belong to. This identity is called the relational self. Each member must have the same traits that are important and treasured by the group. Each member takes pride in their shared beliefs and remains united through both success and failure. Confucius introduced the idea of the subdued self. It means prioritizing social duties over personal desires. It embodies virtues such as ren (human-heartedness), emphasizing altruism, benevolence, and fulfilling societal obligations. This concept encourages individuals to be selfless and contribute positively to their community by focusing on serving others before themselves. In Confucian thought, the self develops through relationships and spiritual growth. It emphasizes fulfilling social roles, moral cultivation, and harmony with the natural order. Example: A child develops a sense of (Xiao) filial piety by respecting and taking care of their parents, which is seen as crucial for personal development and ethical growth. This focus on family obligations and harmonious relationships is central to Confucian views on self-development. Reference: Corpuz, R., et al. (2019). Understanding the Self. C & E Publishing, Inc. MSEd, K. C. (2022, November 8). What is collectivist culture? Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-are-collectivistic-cultures- 2794962#:~:text=Collectivism%20stresses%20the%20importance%20of,are%20promoted%20in%20individualistic %20cultures. MSEd, K. C. (2023, March 10). Individualistic culture and behavior. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-are-individualistic-cultures-2795273. Niebauer, C. (2023, June 9). Eastern philosophy says there is no “self.” Science agrees. Big Think. https://bigthink.com/the-well/eastern-philosophy-neuroscience-no-self/. Rattini, K. B. (2019, March 26). Who was Confucius? Culture. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/confucius. 05 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 2 of 2 GE2405 UNPACKING THE PHYSICAL SELF Our physical appearance, especially our face, significantly influences how we are perceived. We often prioritize our facial appearance, as it provides an initial impression. This module examines the relationship between our physical bodies and our perception of self. The Self as Impacted by the Body The physical self encompasses how we perceive and evaluate our appearance, including our height, weight, skin tone, hair type, and facial features. How we view our bodies impacts our self-perception and identity. Our body image—the mental image we have of our physical self—shapes how we see ourselves and affects our emotions and behavior. The Impact of Culture on Body Image and Self-esteem Culture significantly shapes our views on body image and self-esteem. Body Image refers to a person's thoughts, feelings, and perceptions of the aesthetics of their body. Positive Body Image—This refers to feeling confident and happy with one’s body as it is and not being overly concerned with societal standards. Negative Body Image – It refers to being critical of our appearance, focusing on flaws, and feeling dissatisfied with our body. Self-Esteem impacts our overall well-being, including emotional and physical health. Body image and self-esteem are connected: a healthy body image enhances self-esteem and vice versa. Below are key cultural influences on body image and self-esteem: Media Representation – Television, movies, and social media often portray certain body types as ideal. Example: Many advertisements feature models who are tall and slim, which can lead people to believe that they must look for a certain way to be accepted or loved. Limiting representation and unrealistic images can lead to negative body image and lower self-esteem. Beauty Standards – These are societal norms dictating the ideal physical appearance. Different cultures have different standards of beauty. Examples: In the Philippines, beauty standards often emphasize characteristics such as fair skin, smooth complexion, and well-defined features. These ideals can lead people to seek products or procedures to align with these beauty standards. In Western cultures, a slim physique is often associated with beauty, which can lead to negative feelings about one's body if one does not meet this standard. Example: Someone from a culture that values body art may feel proud and confident, while someone from a more conservative background may feel ashamed of their choices. 06 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 1 of 3 GE2405 Community and Support—Understanding how culture influences our perception is crucial for fostering a positive image. When communities value diverse body types, individuals tend to feel more confident and less anxious about unrealistic beauty standards. Example: A supportive community that appreciates all body shapes helps people feel better about their own appearance. The Importance of Beauty Beauty is more than just aesthetics. Recognizing the importance of beauty can help us understand its effects on the following aspects: Social Relations –It refers to the relationships and exchanges we have in our social and personal lives. Example: A person who is confident in their appearance could be more outgoing, which could result in stronger and more fulfilling relationships. Self-esteem – It might increase our confidence and sense of value if we are satisfied with how we look. Example: A person who feels attractive may be more confident when facing new challenges or setting personal goals, leading to a healthier self-image. Job Opportunities – Physical beauty can influence job opportunities, particularly in roles that involve public visibility. However, skills, experience, and professionalism are also crucial factors in career advancement. Example: A model who meets industry beauty standards may have more opportunities for high-profile work. In contrast, others may find that their appearance contributes to making a positive impression during interviews. Body Image Issues and Eating Disorders Many people experience negative body image, which can lead to serious mental health issues such as eating disorders. These disorders can arise from a mix of genetic, environmental, and psychological factors. Below are common eating disorders, their symptoms, and how they relate to body image. Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) – It is a mental health condition where someone obsessively worries about imagined or minor defects in their appearance. Example: A person may spend hours in front of the mirror, focusing on a small blemish or a perceived imperfection. This can lead to avoidance of social situations and significant impairment in daily life. Anorexia Nervosa – It is a serious eating disorder characterized by extreme weight loss and an intense fear of gaining weight. Individuals with this disorder often see themselves as overweight, even when they are dangerously underweight. Example: A teenager may avoid social situations or refuse to eat meals with family, believing they need to lose more weight. 06 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 2 of 3 GE2405 Bulimia Nervosa – It involves cycles of binge eating followed by purging to prevent weight gain. During a binge, a person might eat large amounts of food in a short period, feeling out of control. Afterward, they may force themselves to vomit or use laxatives instead. Example: A college student might binge eat during finals week due to stress and then feel guilty, leading to purging behaviors. Binge Eating Disorder (BED) – It is characterized by frequent episodes of eating large amounts of food, often quickly and to the point of discomfort. Unlike bulimia, individuals with BED do not engage in purging behaviors. They may eat when they are not hungry or to cope with emotional stress. Example: Someone may turn to food for comfort after a breakup, leading to feelings of guilt and sadness afterward. In summary, understanding body image and eating disorders is crucial for mental health. These issues are complex and usually need professional help. If you or someone you know is struggling, it is crucial to seek help. Everyone deserves to feel good about themselves, regardless of their size or shape. Reference: Corpuz, R., et al. (2019). Understanding the Self. C & E Publishing, Inc. American Psychiatry Association. (n.d.). What are Eating Disorders? https://www.psychiatry.org/patients- families/eating-disorders/what-are-eating-disorders. Ceds, L. M. P. (2023, January 23). The connection between body image and eating disorders. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/body-image-and-eating-disorders-4149424. Collegenp. (n.d.). Influence of Culture on Body Self-Image: Exploring Cross-Cultural Differences and the Role of Media | CollegeNP. https://www.collegenp.com/article/influence-of-culture-on-body-self-image/. Crossway. (2021, August 3). 5 Myths about Body Image. https://www.crossway.org/articles/5-myths-about-body- image/. Ekern, B. (2023, March 8). How cultural traditions can shape body image. Eating Disorder Hope. https://www.eatingdisorderhope.com/blog/how-cultural-traditions-can-shape-body-image. Pedersen, T. (2023, February 27). How does social media affect body image? Psych Central. https://psychcentral.com/health/how-the-media-affects-body-image#coping-with-body-image-issues. Williams, B. (2023, December 9). The influence of culture on body image | Shiblaqbri. Shiblaqbri. https://shiblaqbri.com/lifestyle/cultural-influence-body-image. 06 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 3 of 3 GE2405 UNPACKING THE SEXUAL SELF The sexual self refers to an individual’s understanding of their sexual orientation, desires, preferences, and relationships. It shapes your identity and how you feel about yourself. In this module, we will explore these aspects to help you understand and embrace your unique sexual self. Are you ready to dive in? Development of the Secondary Sex Characteristics Secondary sex characteristics are physical traits that develop during puberty, distinguishing males and females but not directly involved in reproduction. Male Female Increased larynx size and deeper voice Widening of hips and enlargement of breasts Increased muscle mass Onset of menstruation Increased growth of body hair Increased growth of body hair Human Reproductive System The human reproductive system is a collection of organs and structures in both males and females that work together for reproduction. Below are the importance of the reproductive system: It generates sperm in males and eggs in females for reproduction and species development. Hormones like estrogen and testosterone are essential for developing secondary sex characteristics. It helps individuals understand their own bodies and sexual health, leading to healthier relationships and better decision-making about consent and safety. Erogenous Zones Erogenous zones are sensitive areas of the body that can lead to sexual arousal when stimulated. The following are common erogenous zones: Lips and Mouth Neck and Ears Breasts and Nipples Inner Thighs Human Sexual Response Cycle (Masters and Johnson model) The human sexual response cycle describes the changes that happen in the body as people become sexually aroused. The cycle consists of four main phases: 1. Excitement – The body prepares for sexual activities. Males may experience an erection of the penis and nipples, tightening of the scrotum, an increase in respiration, muscular tension, heart rate, and release of pre-ejaculation fluid during this phase. In females, the discharge of lubricating fluid and clitoris enlargement are possible. 2. Plateau – It intensifies responses from the excitement phase. You may experience rapid breathing, high blood pressure, a faster heart rate, and muscle contractions in the face, feet, and hands. 07 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 1 of 5 GE2405 3. Orgasm – This phase, referred to as the ‘climax’ of the cycle, involves intense breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate. Muscle contractions in the face, feet, and hands continue, and both partners may be able to breathe heavily. There is an overwhelming release of sexual tension: males ejaculate semen, while females experience vaginal muscle contractions. 4. Resolution – The body gradually returns to its normal functioning. Fatigue may begin to be felt; however, sexual activity is expected to provide a sense of biological fulfillment. Chemistry of Lust, Love, and Attachment Helen Fisher (1945 – 2024) was an American anthropologist and self-help author who identified three stages of love: lust, attraction, and attachment. Lust – It involves the natural desire for sexual pleasure, which is important for all living beings. This desire is linked to sex hormones: testosterone in males and estrogen in females. Attraction – This intense attention can create a deep desire for emotional connection, sometimes resulting in irrational behavior driven by passion. Hormones and chemicals such as adrenaline, dopamine, and serotonin are essential in this stage. o Adrenaline – It is released during "fight" or "flight" responses, which can cause sweat and dry mouth when you see your crush. o Dopamine – It produces a strong feeling of pleasure, boosts energy, reduces hunger and sleep needs, and helps you focus on your partner. o Serotonin – It is linked to "falling in love," which makes you constantly think of your partner. Attachment – This stage in relationships is characterized by a desire for intimacy, comfort, and security with a partner. It emphasizes long-term companionship and is influenced by the hormones oxytocin and vasopressin. o Oxytocin (cuddle hormone) – It is released during orgasm and enhances feelings of intimacy after sexual intercourse. o Vasopressin (anti-diuretic hormone) – It is released after sexual intercourse and plays a crucial role in attachment. It is important to note that these stages can overlap and do not always occur in a strict order. Furthermore, individual experiences may differ due to genetic, personal, and cultural factors. Although this model provides a framework for understanding the biological basis of love, human relationships are complex and influenced by factors beyond chemistry. The Diversity of Sexual Behavior Sexual behavior refers to a variety of actions and activities related to sexual expression and intimacy. The following are examples of sexual behavior: Masturbation – It is a sexual act of stimulating one's own genitals. Sexual Intercourse (Coitus)– This refers to the act of sexual reproduction where the male's penis penetrates the female's vagina (or other orifices). Sexual Play – It is a variety of sexual activities that may not involve intercourse but still provide sexual 07 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 2 of 5 GE2405 pleasure and intimacy. It includes behaviors such as kissing, touching, role-playing, using toys, and exploring fantasies. It focuses on enhancing connection and enjoyment between partners while emphasizing consent and communication. Marital sex – It refers to the sexual activity between spouses, often seen as part of the marital relationship. Premarital Sex – It refers to the sexual activity between individuals who are not married, typically occurring before they enter a marital relationship. Extramarital sex – It refers to the sexual activity that occurs outside of a marriage, often with one partner being unfaithful to the other. This is considered unlawful and unacceptable in society, for it is an act of infidelity. Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) are infections caused by various pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, or parasites, that can be transmitted through sexual contact. Many STIs can be asymptomatic, causing an individual to be infected without displaying any symptoms. This can lead to undiagnosed and untreated infections, which can lead to complications over time. STIs can also be transmitted from a pregnant person to their baby during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. Moreover, some STIs may spread through blood transfusions or by sharing needles. It is essential to practice safe sex and get regular screenings to reduce the risk of transmission and manage potential infections effectively. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) refer to infections that have progressed to a stage where symptoms or disease symptoms are present. This term is used when an STI leads to noticeable health issues, such as pain, discomfort, or other clinical symptoms. In essence, all STDs are STIs, but not all STIs develop into STDs. Below are five common sexually transmitted diseases (STDs): Chlamydia – It is caused by the bacteria, Chlamydia trachomatis. It can affect the penis, vagina, cervix, anus, urethra, eyes, and throat. In females, symptoms may include strong-smelling vaginal discharge, painful urination, and pain during sexual activity. In males, symptoms can include discharge from the penis, painful urination, and testicular swelling. Gonorrhea is a bacterial infection that affects mucous membranes such as the eyes, throat, and genitals. In men, it often causes yellowish-white discharge and painful urination. Women may experience painful urination and discharge, including fever, abdominal pain, and the risk of pelvic inflammatory disease. Syphilis – It is an infection caused by the corkscrew-shaped bacterium, Treponema pallidum. It is transmitted by direct contact with syphilitic sores that can appear on the vagina, anus, rectum, lips, or mouth. Syphilis can be contracted through sexual activity or even by kissing an infected individual. If left untreated, it can lead to severe health issues, such as paralysis, blindness, heart disease, brain damage, dementia, and potentially death. HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) – It is primarily transmitted through blood, semen, vaginal fluids, 07 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 3 of 5 GE2405 and breast milk, and it is likely to cause AIDS if not treated. Symptoms of HIV may be mild or absent initially but can progress to serious health issues. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) can prevent viruses and reduce the risk of transmission. Although there is no cure, ongoing research is aiming to discover potential cures in the future. AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) – It is a condition that is caused by HIV that weakens the immune system, making the body vulnerable to infections and certain cancers. It is the final stage of HIV infection, and you cannot acquire AIDS without first having HIV. Most people with HIV can avoid progressing to AIDS with treatment, but without it, most will eventually develop AIDS. Although there is no cure for AIDS, it can be managed with medical treatment and antiretroviral therapy (ART). Methods of Contraception (Natural and Artificial) Contraception methods prevent pregnancy during sexual activity and can be classified as natural or artificial. Since no method is perfect, consider the following factors when choosing a contraception method: The contraceptive should have no unwanted side effects for users. It should effectively prevent unwanted pregnancies. The method should be simple and easy to use. It should be readily available when needed. Natural Contraception Natural Contraception does not include any chemical or foreign body insertion into the human body. Most people who are very conscious of their religious beliefs are more inclined to use the natural method of birth control. Most individuals prefer natural methods because they are more cost-effective. Coitus Interruptus (Withdrawal) – The male partner withdraws before ejaculation to prevent sperm from entering the uterus. While it can reduce pregnancy risk, it is unreliable due to pre-ejaculate fluid and does not protect against Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs). Abstinence – This practice involves refraining from sexual activity and is the only method that is 100% effective in preventing pregnancy and STIs. It can be a personal choice based on various factors, such as religious beliefs and personal values. Calendar Method (Rhythm Method) – This involves tracking menstrual cycles to predict fertile days by marking the start and end of each period on a calendar. It helps identify when to avoid unprotected sex to prevent pregnancy. Artificial Contraception Artificial Contraception is hormonal contraceptives effective through the manipulation of the hormones that directly affect the normal menstrual cycle so that ovulation would not occur. Condoms – This refers to a barrier method used by males or females to prevent sperm from reaching the egg while also providing protection against STIs. Birth control pills – These are daily hormonal pills that prevent ovulation and help regulate the menstrual cycle. The birth control pill works by stopping sperm from fertilizing an egg. Fertilization occurs when sperm joins with an egg. 07 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 4 of 5 GE2405 IUDs (Intrauterine Devices) are small devices inserted into the uterus that prevent fertilization. They are available in hormonal and non-hormonal (copper) forms. Implants – These are hormonal rods placed under the skin of the arm that release hormones to prevent ovulation. Injectables – These are hormonal injections administered every few months to prevent ovulation. Both natural and artificial methods have varying effectiveness rates and may be suitable for various lifestyles and health needs. These methods can enhance effectiveness; however, they require careful observation and education for optimal results. Reference: Corpuz, R., et al. (2019). Understanding the Self. C & E Publishing, Inc. Department of Health & Human Services. (n.d.). Contraception - choices. Better Health Channel. https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/contraception-choices. Healthdirect Australia. (n.d.-a). Female reproductive system. Healthdirect. https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/female- reproductive-system. Healthdirect Australia. (n.d.). Male reproductive system. Healthdirect. https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/male- reproductive-system. National Library of Medicine. (n.d.). Sexually transmitted infections. STD | Venereal Disease | MedlinePlus. https://medlineplus.gov/sexuallytransmittedinfections.html. Professional, C. C. M. (n.d.). HIV & AIDS. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4251-hiv- aids. Planned Parenthood. (n.d.). What is the Calendar Method? | Fertility Calendar Info. https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/birth-control/fertility-awareness/whats-calendar-method-fams. Rye, B. J. (2023). The sexual self as a function of relationship status in an emerging adult sample. Behavioral Sciences, 13(6), 505. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13060505. Santos-Longhurst, A. (2024, July 22). Everything you need to know about erogenous zones. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/healthy-sex/erogenous-zones#more-common. Villines, Z. (2023, September 20). Everything you need to know about erogenous zones. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/erogenous-zones. World Health Organization: WHO. (2023, September 5). Family planning/contraception methods. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/family-planning-contraception. 07 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 5 of 5 GE2405 UNPACKING THE MATERIAL SELF In today’s world, the things we buy and the brands we choose play a significant role in shaping our identity. This module focuses on the relationship between consumer culture and our sense of self. By examining how what we consume influences who we are, we can better understand the different aspects of our identity. The Concept of the Material Self William James, a prominent psychologist and philosopher, introduced the idea of the material self. According to James, the material self refers to tangible objects, places, or even people that we identify with through the label ‘my’ or ‘mine.’ There are several aspects of the material self: Body – It is the primary component of the material self. We strive hard to make sure that our body functions well. Clothing – It is a form of self-expression. We choose and wear clothes that reflect our self. Family – It is an extension of one’s identity because the members influence one’s actions and dispositions in the environment. Home – It is a space that one considers to be their own. Needs vs. Wants Needs are essential for survival and basic functioning. These include basic requirements such as food, shelter, clothing, and healthcare. Wants, on the other hand, are things people desire but do not necessarily require for survival. Wants can include things like the latest gadgets, designer clothes, or a luxurious vacation. People have different buying behaviors. Some are impulse buyers, buying anything without much thought, while others feel they deserve to treat themselves because they work hard. Some focus on getting what they need, while others desire both needs and wants. Many people don’t clearly separate needs from wants due to their lack of self-control. This is why there should be a balance between needs and wants. The Role of Consumer Culture on Our Sense of Self and Identity Consumer culture refers to a form of material culture driven by the market. It creates a specific relationship between people and the goods or services they buy and use. This culture can influence our identities in several ways: 1. Identity Expression – People often use their purchases to express who they are. Example: Andrei might decorate his room with posters of his favorite band that reflect his personal music style. 2. Social Status – Many people associate certain brands and products with prestige and social status. Example: Kent believes that purchasing a luxury car makes him more important in social settings. 3. Belonging – Consumers often purchase items to fit in with certain groups. Example: Denisse may purchase the latest sneakers or trendy accessories to connect with her peers. 07 Handout 2A *Property of STI Page 1 of 2 GE2405 4. Emotional Connection – Possessions can hold sentimental value, which reminds us of important memories, relationships, or milestones in our lives. Example: Justine keeps his late grandmother’s handmade quilt, which evokes memories of her love and warmth. 5. Therapeutic Consumption – Some people turn to shopping for comfort or escape, using material goods to cope with emotional challenges. This can complicate the connection between identity and consumption. Example: After a stressful week, Julia shops for new clothes to lift her spirits, finding temporary comfort in her purchases, which may lead to patterns of emotional spending. Consumer culture has a significant impact on how we express ourselves and shape our identities. By being aware of how our expenditure reflects who we are, we can make better choices. Understanding this connection helps us focus on what truly matters to us and develop a healthier relationship with our possessions. Reference: Consumer culture. (n.d.). Obo. https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo- 9780199756384/obo-9780199756384-0135.xml. Saad, M. (2024, January 24). What is material self? - self-discovery. Self-Discovery. https://selfdiscovery.pro/what- is-material-self/. 07 Handout 2A *Property of STI Page 2 of 2 GE2405 UNPACKING THE SPIRITUAL SELF The spiritual self is the part of a person that seeks purpose, meaning, and connection beyond the material world. It involves beliefs, values, and inner experiences that guide one’s sense of peace, purpose, and connection to something greater. The Practice of Religion: Belief in Supernatural Being and Power Religion has been a fundamental component of human culture throughout history. It influences our beliefs, values, and understanding of the world. At the core of many religions is the belief in supernatural beings or powers. These might include gods, spirits, or other entities beyond the physical world. In Christianity, God is viewed as omnipotent who guides and protects believers. In many Indigenous cultures, spirits of ancestors or nature are recognized and considered to be a factor in daily life. The Concept of “Dungan” – Spirit or Soul In the Philippines, particularly among Visayan-speaking communities, "dungan" refers to a person's spiritual or life force. It can be understood as a person’s inner strength or spiritual energy. It is like an invisible force within everyone that affects their vitality, emotions, and how they handle challenges. A strong “dungan” is believed to provide protection. People with strong "dungan" are seen as confident, resilient, and protected from negative influences, while those with a weak "dungan" are considered more vulnerable to problems or illness. Essentially, it represents someone’s spirit or inner power that plays a big role in their well-being and relationships. The concept also extends to life after death, as some believe that the "dungan" transitions to another realm or continues to impact the living. This concept reflects numerous communities' perceptions of spirituality, morality, and well-being. Rituals and Ceremonies Rituals and ceremonies are vital religious practices, serving as expressions of faith and community. They allow individuals to connect with the divine, commemorate significant events, and reinforce shared beliefs. Types of Rituals 1. Life Cycle Rituals – These mark important life events like birth, marriage, and death. For instance, weddings in many cultures involve specific rituals that symbolize the union between two individuals and their families. 2. Seasonal Rituals – These are often aligned with harvest times, solstices, equinoxes, and lunar cycles, symbolizing renewal, growth, or gratitude. For instance, the Hindu festival of Diwali symbolizes the victory of light over darkness and involves lighting lamps and sharing sweets. Ramadan in Islam often occurs during significant agricultural periods, tying physical strength to spiritual development. 3. Healing Rituals – These aim to restore health and wellness, combining physical and spiritual elements. 08 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 1 of 2 GE2405 Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft The boundaries between religion, magic, and witchcraft can be complex and often overlap. Understanding this distinction can help us appreciate the complexities of religious beliefs. Religion – It involves collective beliefs, practices, and institutions to connect with the divine. Magic refers to the use of specific rituals or spells to influence events or outcomes. Many cultures have traditions of healing through magical practices. Witchcraft – In various societies, witchcraft can be viewed negatively. Historical witch hunts illustrate how fear of witchcraft led to persecution despite many practitioners simply being healers or wise individuals in their communities. Finding and Creating Meaning Religion provides a framework for individuals to find and create meaning in their lives. Through beliefs, rituals, and community, people can navigate life's challenges, face mortality, and seek purpose. Engaging with religious beliefs allows individuals to explore their values and identities. It encourages self-reflection and critical thinking about one's beliefs, resulting in personal growth and transformation. Religion also promotes a sense of belonging and community. Participating in religious practices connects individuals with others who share similar beliefs, providing support and encouragement. In summary, the practice of religion encompasses numerous beliefs and practices that shape individual and collective identities. Reflecting on these aspects helps individuals understand their beliefs and discover meaning in their experiences. References: Corpuz, R., et al. (2019). Understanding the Self. C & E Publishing, Inc. Hof-Wp. (2020, May 11). Your Spiritual self - Hoffman Institute UK. Hoffman Institute UK. https://www.hoffmaninstitute.co.uk/your-spiritual- self/#:~:text=Your%20Spiritual%20Self%20is%20you,caught%20up%20on%20the%20language. Spiritually Healthy You. What is the Spiritual Self? https://www.spirituallyhealthyyou.com/spiritualself/. Zunner-Keating, A., Avetyan, M., & Shepard, B. (n.d.). Welcome to the anthropology of magic, witchcraft, and religion. Pressbooks. https://oer.pressbooks.pub/beliefs/chapter/chapter-1/. 08 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 2 of 2 GE2405 UNPACKING THE POLITICAL SELF In our journey to understand our political selves and how we fit into society, we must explore the factors that shape our identity as Filipinos. This module guides you through the concepts of political self, Filipino identity, and the establishment of a democratic culture. Political Self The political self refers to how individuals perceive their roles and duties within a political context. It encompasses our beliefs, values, governance, and civic engagement actions. Understanding our political self is crucial as it influences how we participate in democracy and societal change. Developing a Filipino Identity A combination of cultural values, beliefs, and community influences shape Filipino identity. This identity is unique, based on the history and experiences of the Filipino people. Below are the key aspects of Filipino Identity: 1. Values – Filipinos often value "Bayanihan," a spirit of communal unity and cooperation. This value encourages helping one another, especially during times of need. 2. Traits – Resilience is a notable trait among Filipinos. Despite the challenges, the ability to bounce back and maintain a positive outlook is a defining characteristic. 3. Community – The concept of "kapwa," or shared identity, plays a crucial role in Filipino communities. It emphasizes interconnectedness and the importance of relationships. 4. Institutional Factors – Institutions such as the family, church, and schools contribute to reinforcing Filipino values. For instance, religious beliefs may influence how individuals view social issues. Establishing a Democratic Culture A democratic culture refers to the shared values and practices that support democracy. It emphasizes participation, equality, and respect for diversity. Key Elements of a Democratic Culture 1. Participation – Active involvement in civic duties, such as voting and community service, is essential. For instance, participating in local elections empowers citizens to voice their opinions. 2. Respect for Diversity – A democratic culture values different perspectives and backgrounds. Engaging with diverse groups can foster understanding and acceptance. 3. Rule of Law – Upholding laws and ensuring justice is vital for a functioning democracy. Citizens must be aware of their rights and responsibilities. 4. Critical Thinking – Encouraging individuals to think critically about political issues can lead to more informed decisions. This means questioning information sources and seeking multiple viewpoints. For instance, a democratic culture can be seen in student councils, where students from various backgrounds collaborate to address school issues, ensuring every voice is heard. 08 Handout 2A *Property of STI Page 1 of 2 GE2405 In summary, understanding our political selves and developing a Filipino identity is essential in navigating our roles in society. By recognizing the forces that shape us and actively participating in a democratic society, we can create a more inclusive and vibrant society. References: Callero, P. L. (2003). The political self. In Springer eBooks (pp. 57–70). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-9188- 1_5. Inquirer, P. D. (2024, September 18). ‘Kapwa,’ ‘hiya,’ and the search for Filipino identity. INQUIRER.net. https://opinion.inquirer.net/176895/kapwa-hiya-and-the-search-for-filipino-identity. 08 Handout 2A *Property of STI Page 2 of 2 GE2405 UNPACKING THE DIGITAL SELF The digital self refers to how an individual portrays oneself in the online environment. This representation can differ from our "real-world" self and is influenced by various forces such as social media platforms, cultural norms, and personal experiences. Self and Other in Cyberspace In cyberspace, we interact with others in unique ways. Digital platforms allow us to connect with people across the globe, but they also create a distance that can affect our understanding of each other. Example: When engaging in online discussions, students may express opinions more freely than in person. However, this can lead to misunderstandings or conflicts, as tone and body language are often lost in text- based communication. Selective Self-Presentation and Impression Management Selective self-presentation refers to the process of choosing what aspects of ourselves to show to others. It can be a powerful tool for managing how we are perceived online. Example: Students may only share their achievements, such as a good grade or a sports victory, while avoiding failures or struggles. This selective sharing can create a positive image but may also lead to a distorted view of reality. Impression management involves the strategies we use to influence how others see us. For example, we may adjust our behavior, language, and even appearance to fit in with certain groups online. Example: A teenager might use specific slang or memes popular among their peers to gain acceptance in an online community. This adjustment helps them blend in and be seen as part of the group. Sociologist Erving Goffman introduced the concept of "front stage" and "backstage" behavior. Front- stage behavior refers to presenting ourselves to others, while backstage behavior refers to our true selves. Online users often maintain a front stage that aligns with societal expectations while hiding their backstage selves. This can create pressure to maintain a certain image, leading to stress and anxiety. Impact of Online Interactions on the Self Online interactions can significantly affect our self-esteem and self-concept. Positive interactions can boost our confidence, while negative experiences, such as cyberbullying, can harm our mental health. Example: Receiving likes and positive comments on a social media post can make a student feel valued and accepted. In contrast, harsh comments or exclusion from online groups can lead to feelings of inadequacy or loneliness. Boundaries of the Self Online Establishing boundaries online is crucial for maintaining a healthy digital self. This involves determining which personal information to share and what to keep private. To protect oneself online, consider the following strategies: Limit Personal Information – Share only what is necessary to maintain privacy. Control Who Sees Your Content – Use privacy settings on social media to manage who can view your posts. 08 Handout 3A *Property of STI Page 1 of 2 GE2405 Reflect Before Posting – Consider how a post may be perceived and whether it aligns with your true self. The Digital Self is a complex and evolving concept. By understanding how we present ourselves online, manage impressions, and interact with others, we can become more proficient in the digital world. Reflecting on our own experiences can help us become more authentic online and offline. References: Onfido. (2024, January 12). What is digital identity? | Your guide to digital identity. https://onfido.com/blog/digital-identity/. The digital self – key words in digital sociology. (2020, January 9). https://blogs.ed.ac.uk/keywordsindigitalsociology/2020/01/09/the-digital-self/. 08 Handout 3A *Property of STI Page 2 of 2 GE2405 MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF Understanding how to manage and care for yourself is essential. This module helps you become a better student, understand changes in your brain and behavior, and develop strategies for self-regulated learning. By the end, you will be equipped with the skills and knowledge to effectively manage different aspects of yourself. Learning to Be a Better Student Being a better student is beneficial for both academic success and personal growth. Being a better student involves more than just attending classes and completing assignments. It requires self-awareness, organization, and motivation. Strong study habits make learning easier and help you remember what you have learned, improving your grades and improving your confidence. These skills also prepare you for lifelong learning, making it easier to cope with new challenges as the world changes. Brain and Behavior Changes Understanding how your brain functions can help you navigate the challenges of being a student. During adolescence, your brain undergoes significant changes that affect behavior and learning: 1. Neurological Changes – The prefrontal cortex, which controls decision-making and impulse control, is still developing in teens, making it harder to focus or resist distractions. As the brain matures, critical thinking and problem-solving improve. You can use these growing skills to tackle challenging problems in school. 2. Emotional Regulation – Hormonal changes can impact your emotions, causing mood swings and increased stress. Techniques like deep breathing, mindfulness, and journaling can help you manage these emotions. The emotional part of the brain develops faster than the decision-making area, which can lead to stronger feelings and impulsive actions. Metacognition and Study Strategies Metacognition refers to awareness of one's own learning processes. It is often thought of as “thinking about thinking” or, in education, “learning to learn.” By developing metacognitive skills, one can enhance one's study strategies. 1. Self-assessment – To improve retention, regularly assess your understanding of the material. Consider asking yourself questions such as: “What do I already know about this topic?”, “Which concepts are challenging for me?” and “What steps can I take to deepen my understanding?” 2. Active Learning Techniques – Engage in active learning techniques such as summarizing information in your own words, teaching concepts to someone else, or creating visual aids like mind maps. These methods can deepen your understanding and retention of the material. 3. Practice Testing – Self-test regularly to assess your understanding. Use flashcards or take practice quizzes. 4. Reflect on Your Learning – After completing a study session, take a moment to reflect. Determine what strategies worked well and what didn’t. Adjust your approach based on these reflections to improve future learning sessions. 09 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 1 of 2 GE2405 Managing Your Own Learning: Self-Regulated Learning Self-regulated learning (SRL) is a way for you to take control of your own learning. It involves knowing your strengths and weaknesses, which helps you set personal goals. While SRL may look different depending on your age, it generally means making intelligent choices about learning and managing your time. Students who practice self-regulation become more independent and can finish tasks without needing constant help. The three phases in the cycle of Self-Regulated Learning are: 1. Forethought Phase – This is referred to as the planning stage. To stay on track with your tasks, start by setting clear goals, choosing your strategies, anticipating potential challenges, and creating a schedule. Use tools like a calendar or planner app to help you stay organized and focused. Example: For a math project due next week, decide to research for two days, write for three days, and review on the last day. You may use a calendar app to mark these days. 2. Performance Phase – During this stage, you put your plans into action, actively track your progress, and evaluate how well your chosen methods are working for you. It involves staying focused and adjusting as needed. Example: While studying for a math test, check if solving practice problems is helping you. If you keep getting the same questions wrong, think about changing your study method. 3. Self-Reflection Phase – In this final phase, you evaluate your performance, reflect on what went well and what didn’t, and identify areas for improvement. You can try new study methods, such as group study sessions or online resources. Example: After getting your grades back, think about how you studied. If you haven’t succeeded, try studying with friends next time or using flashcards to help you remember more. In conclusion, managing and caring for yourself as a student is essential for your success now and in the future. By setting clear goals, understanding how you learn, developing metacognitive strategies, and practicing self-regulated learning, you can significantly enhance your educational experience. Remember that this journey is about continuous improvement; even small steps can lead to major changes. Embrace the process, invest in yourself, and you’ll pave the way for a brighter future. References: Ackerman, C. (2024, September 20). What is Self-Regulation? Positive Psychology. https://positivepsychology.com/self-regulation/. Learning Hive. (n.d.). Promoting metacognition and self-regulated learning. https://www.learninghive.co.uk/blog/metacognition-and-self-regulated-learning. MSEd, K. C. (2023, December 5). The brain and behavior in Psychology. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/lesson-three-brain-and-behavior-2795291. 09 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 2 of 2 GE2405 SETTING GOALS FOR SUCCESS Setting goals is a crucial step in achieving personal and academic success. By defining what we want to accomplish, we can create a roadmap that guides our actions. This module explores the importance of goals, key theories related to goal setting, and practical strategies for creating clear and achievable goals. The Importance of Goals Goals give direction to our efforts and help us stay focused on what truly matters. Sharing your goals with others can create a support system that encourages you to stay committed. By recognizing and celebrating milestones along the way, you can build self-confidence and maintain your motivation. SMART Goals To ensure your goals are effective, consider using the SMART criteria. This framework helps you create clear and realistic goals that can lead to success. 1. Specific – Your goal should be clear. Ask yourself: o What exactly do I want to achieve? o Why is this goal important? o Who needs to be involved? o Where will this take place? Example: "I will improve my math grade by 10% by the end of the semester." 2. Measurable – Your goal should include clear criteria to monitor your progress and determine when the goal has been achieved. Ask yourself: o How will I track my progress? o What indicators will show when the goal is achieved? o What is the timeframe for achieving this goal? Example: "I will track my progress through test scores and assignments.” 3. Achievable – Your goal should be attainable. Consider your resources and constraints. Ask yourself: o How can I reach this goal? o Is this goal realistic? o Do I have the resources and skills needed to achieve it? o What obstacles might I face, and how can I overcome them? Example: "I will study for an hour daily to achieve my desired grade." 4. Relevant – Ensure that your goal is meaningful to you. It should align with your broader life objectives. Ask yourself: o Is this goal truly worthwhile? o How does this goal align with my broader objectives? o Is this the right time to pursue this goal? Example: "Improving my grade is important for my academic success." 10 Handout 1A *Property of STI Page 1 of 3 GE2405 5. Time-Bound – Set a target date to stay focused. Having a deadline helps prioritize your goal and prevents less important tasks from distracting you. Ask yourself: o What is the deadline for this goal? o What can I do today to start moving toward this goal? o What are the key milestones along the way? Example: "I will achieve my goal in three months." Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy, according to Albert Bandura, is the belief in your ability to succeed in specific situations. It affects how you approach challenges and set goals. People with high self-efficacy are more confident and persistent, while those with low self-efficacy may easily avoid challenges and give up. Self-efficacy grows through personal experiences, observing others, encouragement, and managing emotions. Bandura identified four main sources of self-efficacy: 1. Mastery Experiences – Successfully accomplis

UTS Finals: The Self From Various Perspectives PDF

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