Language Acquisition (1) Lecture Notes - PDF

Language Acquisition (1) Dr Thorsten Brato Department of English and American Studies VL Introduction to English Linguistics: English in Use  Recap Lexicography is the compilation and study of dictionaries Evolution of dictionaries Ancient times: glossaries Medie...

Language Acquisition (1) Dr Thorsten Brato Department of English and American Studies VL Introduction to English Linguistics: English in Use  Recap Lexicography is the compilation and study of dictionaries Evolution of dictionaries Ancient times: glossaries Medieval times: semantic fields First alphabetical dictionary: hard words Johnson, Merriam-Webster, OED Dictionary design Macrostructure Microstructure Learner’s dictionaries cater for specific needs of learners Limited defining vocabulary Usage notes 2  Course evaluation Please take a couple of minutes to do the course evaluation https://evasys.uni- regensburg.de/evasys /online/ S5CMH 3  Today's lecture 1 Introduction 4 Acquisition of phonology Approaches to language 2 5 Acquisition of vocabulary acquisition 3 Language acquisition pathways 6 Acquisition of grammar 4  1 Introduction Definitions  [Language acquisition] is concerned with the acquisition of both first and second languages by monolingual and bilingual speakers, and by speakers showing both typical and atypical pathways of acquisition. Across these different populations, language acquisition research is concerned with how all aspects of language are acquired: from sound segments through word choice to increasingly complex grammatical structures, the ability to interpret meanings that are only implied, or to construct extended narratives in culturally recognised structures. (Burridge & Stebbins 2020: 548) Language acquisition is a highly interdisciplinary field drawing on and providing input to (amongst others) Anthropology Cognitive science Education Neuroscience Psychology 5  1 Introduction Definitions We commonly differentiate between First language acquisition (FLA)  Language acquisition is a process which can take place at any period of one's life. In the sense of first language acquisition, however, it refers to the acquisition (unconscious learning) of one's native language (or languages in the case of bilinguals) during the first 6 or 7 years of one's life […] (Hickey 2011) Second language acquisition (SLA)  The term ‘second-language acquisition’ (or SLA) is used to cover any language or languages acquired after the first language (or ‘mother tongue’) […] (Burridge & Stebbins 2020: 571) Today’s focus is on FLA, in the following lecture we will look at SLA 6  2 Approaches to language acquisition Observational and logical There are two basic approaches to research in language acquisition The observational approach and the logical approach The observational approach focuses on what we can observe about how children learn language Also called social constructionist or emergentist research Theorises on the bases of these observations Concerned with emerging models of language that children construct for themselves through social interactions 7  2 Approaches to language acquisition The observational approach Particularly concerned with how children learn to interpret the language around them Goes beyond sound, words and grammar, but also involves things like Inference and circumstance-based language use They need to make sense of what a speaker might mean in a particular situation (sociopragmatics) ‘Nurture’-based Typically asks questions like What happens in language acquisition? What order does it happen in? What variants exist? What are the intentions of these variants? How successful are they used? 8  2 Approaches to language acquisition The logical approach The logical approach seeks to understand language acquisition from the perspective of adult language Adult language is seen as the destination Focus on the endpoint of acquisition rather than the path Assumes that children are born with an innate capacity to acquire any language  Language Acquisition Device (LAD) innate knowledge about the structure of language, i.e. a set of rules for language associated with a corresponding set of linguistic categories  Universal Grammar Noam Chomsky Generativist approach 9  2 Approaches to language acquisition The logical approach Particularly interested in what is possible in particular languages or language in a more general sense ‘Nature’-based Typically asks questions like: What can people say? How does this vary between languages? How are patterns matched or missed in children's speech? What mistakes do children make? When and why do they make them? 10  2 Approaches to language acquisition The observational and logical approach Researchers are often leaning towards one or the other approach, not to say they are fundamentally opposed! Some argue that they are complementary and may explain different aspects of language acquisition at different stages Today there is a general agreement that both ‘nature’ and ‘nurture’ play a role  “nature through nurture” (Burridge & Stebbins 2020: 550) Language only develops in interaction The brain’s and body’s genetic makeup facilitate language development 11  3 Language acquisition pathways The dynamic process of language acquisition Language acquisition is closely associated with brain development At birth, a human’s brain is about 25% of the adult size, increasing to 80% during childhood One-third of the neural connections present at birth are lost by adulthood The brain creates new, more complicated connections Language acquisition is highly dynamic Every new thing a child learns about language or the experience of being a speaker changes the context in which they will learn the next thing Age is one of the most important factors and is commonly noted by the year, followed by a semicolon and the month, e.g. 1;7 means 1 year, 7 months The best understood pathway is analytical It begins with the build up of a sound repertoire, then words, then increasingly complex combinations of words 12  3 Language acquisition pathways Variance Language development speed is different from child to child Some children say their first word at 1;1, others at 2;4 – this is completely normal and evens out very soon Faster development does not necessarily indicate genius Other approaches, such as the gestalt approach Children reproduce whole utterance chunks rather than single words Can be difficult to study How do we sort out if a string is being used as a unit or if a child has constructed it themselves? 13  3 Language acquisition pathways Input Input refers to the language that babies and children hear around them This especially includes language that carers use, known as child-directed speech (CDS) Nativists believed that CDS was too fragmentary to be a reasonable resource without any ‘internal’ support How do you access adult language through ‘baby talk’ or ‘motherese’? Later research found that modifications made in CDS are generally skilfully attuned to the needs of babies and small children 14  3 Language acquisition pathways Recasts and expansions Adults often use recasts to support acquisition, e.g. when the child uses the incorrect grammatical form and the adult rephrases it with the correct form C: I slood down the slide! A: Oh, you slid down the slide! Often, a recast occurs with an expansion, or an opportunity to elaborate further on what has been said C: I slood down the slide! A: Oh, you slid down the slide! Was it super speedy? 15  3 Language acquisition pathways Segmentation Babies and young children also need to learn how to segment words and phrases out of larger structures These segments can involve longer strings that are used in routinised ways Children have to develop the knowledge and skills to break down all types of input, including conventionalised units, into parts and recombine them in creative ways 16  3 Language acquisition pathways The Critical Period Hypothesis The critical period hypothesis claims that the extent to which we can acquire/learn a language is linked to brain development Window of opportunity (a critical period) during childhood during which language must be acquired (~2-13 years) Evidence in favour is based on findings like: Full recovery of language skills becomes rarer if brain damage occurs after puberty Socially isolated (abused) children found in their teens could not fully acquire language Children with slower language development rates who do not acquire full fluency by puberty rarely acquire fully normal linguistic skills Second language learners who begin after childhood, regardless of the exposure they receive, rarely sound like natives 18  4 Acquisition of phonology The first year 0;0-0;3 Crying, cooing Smiles in response to sound or voice 0;4-0;6 First vowel-like sounds (usually [ə]) Babbling 0;7-0;9 Increasing variety of sounds and syllables 0;10-1;0 First words Acquired speech patterns and intonation 19  4 Acquisition of phonology The second year  Self-study Activity Listen to the interview with 2-year-old Jayden on YouTube (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8hnmfi-8df0). Which of the features described can you spot? Jayden’s speech includes amongst others extreme reduction of consonant clusters Simplification of /tʃ/ to plosive Intonation patterns Retraction of /s/ Reduction of /bl-/ cluster Deletion of /v/ 20  4 Acquisition of phonology The third year Consonants now additionally include /p/, /ŋ/, /j/, /ʒ/, /f/ Consonant clusters are in evidence though not always consistent with adult forms Frequent use of [w] in place of [ɹ] in second position Vowel system approximately complete and pronounced accurately around 3;0 Increasingly complex syllable shapes Monosyllabic words contain V, CV, VC, CVC, CCVC, CVCC, CCVCC, CCVCCC and CCCVC syllables Polysyllabic words contain V, CV, VC, CVC and CCVC syllables 21  4 Acquisition of phonology 3;0+ 3-4 Liquids may not be acquired until close to 5;0 and lisps are common until 7;0 but in other respects the consonant inventory has been acquired 4-5 Children also show some awareness of syllable segmentation and rhyme 5-6 Types of phonological awareness include syllable segmentation, rhyme, alliteration, phoneme isolation and beginning letter knowledge 22  4 Acquisition of phonology The ‘fis phenomenon’ Children’s production lags behind their perception They can hear and mentally represent differences in sound sequences before they can produce them This is known as the fis phenomenon due to an incident described by Jean Berko-Gleason and Roger Brown in 1960 Here, a child called a plastic fish a ‘fis’. When asked if the toy is a ‘fis’ the child disagrees. When asked if the toy is a ‘fish’ the child agrees but continues to call it a ‘fis’. 23  5 Acquisition of vocabulary Recognising words and phrases Children recognise words and phrases from around 6 months, at least in terms of behaviour like turning their heads towards those who call their names By 1;6 they can point to body parts in response to questions like ‘Where’s your nose?’. Keep in mind tough, children typically understand many more words than they actively use, and some words they do use may not map clearly onto identifiable adult words 24  5 Acquisition of vocabulary Ages and stages in vocabulary acquisition Age Stage Productive vocabulary size 0;6–1;0 Early commencement of speech May say a small number of different words 1;0–1;6 Typical commencement of speech Typically able to say a small number of different words 1;6–2;0 Expanding vocabulary (two- and three-word Around 50 words utterances) 2;0–3;0 Simple phrases and sentences (words carrying Up to 500 words plural and past tense marking) Burridge & Stebbins (2020: 557) 25  5 Acquisition of vocabulary Extensions Children also have a tendency to overextend the meanings of words, especially when their vocabulary is limited For instance, any swimming bird might be a duck, and furry pet might be a dog. Overextension is typically based on shape, function, or other kinds of semantic relations. There are also examples of underextensions. For instance, sooze might refer ONLY to children’s shoes. 26  6 Acquisition of grammar Typical order children acquire English gram. forms 1 Present progressive (singing) 2 Prepositions in and on (in bed; on blanket) 3 Plural inflection (houses) 4 Irregular past tense verb forms (went, broke, brought) 5 Possessive inflection (Daddy’s ball) 6 Copular (or linking) verb be (is, am, are) 7 Articles (a, an, the) 8 Regular past tense inflection (jumped, goed, breaked, bringed) 9 Regular present tense inflection (Mamma sings) 10 Irregular present tense forms (has, does) Burridge & Stebbins (2020: 558) 27  6 Acquisition of grammar Analogy – or the importance of the wug Psycholiguist Jean Berko Gleason in 1958 wanted to test how children learn the plural forms of English Morphophonology {s} is realised differently depending on the final sound of the singular form Voiceless consonant not [s] /s ʃ tʃ/, e.g. /bæt/ Voiced consonant not {s} [z] /z ʒ dʒ/ or vowel, e. g. /bæɡ/ /s z ʃ ʒ tʃ dʒ/, e.g. /bætʃ/ [ɪz] 28  6 Acquisition of grammar Analogy – or the importance of the wug Children know the word bug, so they apply the rule they acquired analogously bug:bugs = wug:wugs Similarly, take the made-up words, hoggle and quotch Words ending in /l/ take [z] Words ending in [tʃ] take [ɪz] Also works for other morphological patterns, e.g. verb tense suffixes This is a man who knows how to bing [= man standing on ceiling]. He is binging. He did the same thing yesterday. Yesterday he … ?’ 29   Keywords Child-directed speech Nurture expansion Observational approach First language acquisition Overextension fis phenomenon recast Generativist approach Second language acquisition Input Stages of phonological acquisition in the first two years Language acquisition Underextension Language Acquisition Device Universal Grammar logical approach Wug MLU (mean length of utterance) Nature 32   References Bennett, Wm. G., Maxine Diemer, Justine Kerford, Tracy Probert & Tsholofelo Wesi. 2016. Setswana (South African). Journal of the International Phonetic Association 46(2). 235–246. Burridge, Kate & Tonya N. Stebbins. 2020. For the love of language: An introduction to linguistics, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hickey, Raymond. 2021. English Linguistics in Essen. https://www.uni-due.de/ELE/index.html. (1 July, 2021.) 33