Pragmatics Lecture Notes PDF

Recap Deixis and reference Inference, presupposition Speech Act Context and Theory...

Recap Deixis and reference Inference, presupposition Speech Act Context and Theory entailment Conversation Cooperation Inter- and and and Politeness crosscultural discourse implicature pragmatics analysis 2  Recap Inference, presupposition Deixis and Speech Act Context and reference Theory entailment 1. Situational 1. Definite (deictic 1. Entailment 1. Locution 2. Background vs. non-deictic) 2. Presupposition 2. Illocution knowledge 2. Indefinite 3. Perlocution 3. Co-textual 3. Generic 4. Direct vs. indirect 3  Recap Assumptions Example 1 AF: (2) So you went to Arran. A bit of a come-down, isn’t it?! ((laughing)) DM: It was nice actually. Have you been to Arran? AF: No I’ve not. (1) Like to go. DM: Did a lot of climbing. AF: // (heh) DM: // I went with Francesca (0.5) and David. AF: Uhuh? DM: Francesca’s roommate. (2) And Alice’s – a friend of Alice’s from London (1). There were six of us. Yeah, we did a lot of hill walking. (0.5) We got back (1) er (2) Michelle and I got home she looked at her knees. (0.5) They were like this. Swollen up like this. ’Cause we did this enormous eight hour stretch. AF: Uhm. (Students on hill walking 1996; Cutting&Fordyce 2020: 5) Previous assumption: Speaker and listener cooperate in their conversation They do not confuse, trick or withhold relevant information from one another 4  1 The Cooperative Principle Maxims of conversation  Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. (Grice 1975: 45) Maxim of quantity 1 2 3 Maxim of relation 4 Maxim of quality Maxim of manner 5  1 The Cooperative Principle Implicatures The Cooperative Principle is a concept underlying Grice’s (1975) Theory of Conversational Implicature  [Implicatures: [P]arts of the meanings of utterances which, although intended, are not strictly part of ‘what is said’ in the act of utterance, nor do they follow logically from what is said. (Cruse 2006: 85) Conventional Have a stable association with but implies contrast Example : I said no, but he did it anyway implicature particular linguistic expressions yet implies surprise Example : Are you not yet finished? Conversational Must be inferred [… and] contextual Example : Can I speak to Mary? // She’s in the shower. implicature information is crucial Example : I ran out of bread. // There’s a bakery round the corner. 6  1 The Cooperative Principle Semantic vs. pragmatic analysis Example 2 During lunch, Woman A asks Woman B how she likes the hamburger. B responds, "A hamburger is a hamburger." (Yule 1996: 35) Semantic Perspective (literal meaning) The statement has no specific communicative value Pragmatic Perspective (assuming cooperation) Despite the literal response, B likely intends to convey an additional meaning Possible Implicatures No Strong Opinion: B may have no particular impression to share Lack of Noteworthiness: B might imply the hamburger is unremarkable 7  1 The Cooperative Principle Maxim of quantity 1. Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange). 2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. Example 3 A: What did you have for lunch today? B: (i) Baked beans on toast. (ii) Food. (iii) I had 87 warmed-up baked beans (although eight of them were slightly crushed) served on a slice of toast 12.7 cm by 10.3 cm, which had been unevenly toasted... (Cruse 2011: 368) 8  1 The Cooperative Principle Maxim of quality 1. Do not say what you believe to be false. 2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Example 4 A: Why are you late for class? B: (i) I missed three buses because they were already full. (ii) Aliens abducted me. 9  1 The Cooperative Principle Maxim of relevance Be relevant Example 5 A: I ran out of petrol. B: (i) Yes. (ii) There’s a petrol station about a mile from here. (iii) Look, a squirrel! 10  1 The Cooperative Principle Maxim of manner 1. Avoid obscurity of expression. 2. Avoid ambiguity. 3. Be brief. 4. Be orderly. Example 6 (i) I went to the conference and gave a talk. (ii) The ontological implications of the hermeneutical circle's epistemological ramifications necessitate a paradigm shift in our axiological framework. (iii) John told Mike that he was a liar. (iv) The reason why I am unable to attend the meeting is because I have a prior engagement that I am obligated to attend to. (v) The dog barked, the car crashed, a blue dress, the sun was shining, then the phone rang. 11  1 The Cooperative Principle Maxims of conversation What can a speaker do with regard to the maxims? Observe! Follow the maxims as good as you can Violate! Tell a deliberate lie, e.g. because you are being threatened Comic purposes Opt out! A speaker uses hedges, i.e. linguistic expressions employed to express imprecision or qualification 12  1 The Cooperative Principle Observing: Indicating adherence Quantity Quality Relation Manner That's all there is Honestly! The point is… In short, … to it. This is true. To make it clear, For sure. … All in all, … 13  1 The Cooperative Principle Violating: Indicating non-adherence Quantity Quality Relation Manner Do you have the The sun goes How was school? What are you time? // Yes, I do. round the earth. // Look a baking? // (i) (i) squirrel! B-I-S-C-U-I-T-S (i) Here’s your stamp. Here are some The new Bonda // Do I have to stick vegan tomatoes. Seguro will be it on myself? // No, (ii) best car ever on the envelope. (ii) produced. (ii) You’ll like it. You’re gonna like it! It is what you like. (iii) John rode into the sunset and jumped on his horse. (iv) 14  1 The Cooperative Principle Opting out Quantity Quality Relation Manner As As far youas I probably AsAs you probably far as I Oh, by the way… I'm not sure if know,… already know,… already know,…know,… I'm not sure this this is clear, but I'm I probably not suredon‘t if II‘m not suredon't probably if is relevant, but… … needisto this say but… true, this, this isto need true, saybut… this, I don't know if I don't mean to but… but… I may be wrong, this makes any I may be wrong, change the I can‘t say but… but… I can't say subject, but… sense, but … anymore… anymore… This may be a bit tedious, but… 15  2 Politeness Introduction  Politeness can be defined as any behaviour including verbal behaviour of an interlocutor to maintain his or her face and that of the individuals he or she is interacting with. (Huang 2014: 142) There are three major approaches to studying politeness developed in the 1970s and 1980s 1. Politeness as social rules or norms 2. Politeness as adherence to politeness maxims 3. Politeness as strategic face management 18  2 Politeness The Politeness Principle The Politeness Principle (Leech 1983) Minimise (other things being equal) the expression of impolite beliefs Maximise (other things being equal) the expression of polite beliefs  […] a necessary complement, which rescues the CP [Cooperative Geoffrey Principle, TB] from serious trouble. Leech Principles of Leech 1983: 80) politeness (1983) 19  2 Politeness The Politeness Principle Example 7 A: We’ll all miss Bill and Agatha, won’t we. B: We’ll all miss Bill. B apparently fails to observe the maxim of quantity Implicature: B will miss Bill, but not Agatha B could have been more informative and not violate the maxims of quality, relation or manner by adding but not Agatha. B violated the CP to uphold the PP Giving the required information would have been impolite 20  2 Politeness The Irony Principle  If you must cause offence, at least do so in a way which doesn’t overtly conflict with the PP, but allows the hearer to arrive at the offensive point of your remark indirectly, by way of implicature. (Leech 1983: 82) Example 8 A: Geoff has just stolen your car. B: Well, that’s some good news. The implicature derived from the Irony Principle (IP) is as follows 'What B says is polite to Geoff and is clearly not true. Therefore, what B really means is impolite to Geoff and true.' 21  2 Politeness Maxims of politeness Tact Minimise cost to other [maximise benefit to other] Example 9: Can you answer the phone? Generosity Minimise benefit to self [maximise cost to self] Example 10: I can lend you my car. Approbation Minimise dispraise of other [maximise praise to other] Example 11: What a marvellous meal you cooked! Modesty Minimise praise of self [maximise dispraise of self] Example 12: How stupid of me! Agreement Minimise disagreement between self and other [maximise agreement] Example 13: …true,… …Yes, but…. Sympathy Minimise antipathy between self and other [maximise sympathy between…] Example 14: I am terribly sorry… 22  3 Inter- and cross-cultural pragmatics Introduction  The study of different expectations among different communities regarding how meaning is constructed. (Yule 1996: 128) Example 15 Upon an offer of coffee, I, at that time, automatically said “No, I’m fine” – not because I did not want the coffee – quite the contrary in fact! I said I was fine because that is what we conventionally do in my home country, Ireland. I, of course, fully expected to be asked a second time, was I sure I would not like a cup. Upon such a reoffer, I would, naturally, have graciously said, okay, so, just the one! On a later visit to Germany, I also distinctly remember often feeling very foolish and also annoyed at German native speakers’ reactions to my innocent polite question, “Bist Du sicher?” (Are you sure?), in response to their refusing an offer of coffee which I had just made. I was quickly told on several occasions that yes, they were sure – had they not just said no! They, on the other hand, probably felt insulted that I did not seem to believe that they had meant what they had said. (Barron 2003: 19) 26  3 Intercultural Pragmatics Analysing Bend it like Beckham (2002) Background Evolves around the life of 18-year-old Jasminder Bhamra, who is part of a British-Indian Sikh family in West London She is very much into football and plays with ‘the boys’ in the park before joining a women’s football team Her parents do not support her in playing football and she kept it a secret from them This scene takes place just after Joe, her coach has learned that she had been coming to football practice without her parents’ knowledge, and she has now stopped because they found out The scene highlights different cultural norms and values, but even more so sociopragmatic priorities https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MtDwAHiDN-s Analysis based on Cutting&Fordyce 2020: 128-130 27  3 Intercultural Pragmatics Analysing Bend it like Beckham (2002) T1/3 Joe Speech act: apology I’m sorry to barge in on you like this Mr and He does not apologise Mrs Bhamra, but I wanted to talk to you in for the fact that Jess is playing football against person. I only found out today that you didn’t her parents’ will know that Jess is playing for our team. […] I that Jess was inobedient apologise. If I’d known, I would’ve Joe exhibits negative politeness – from a encouraged Jess to tell you. British, but not an Indian perspective 28  3 Intercultural Pragmatics Analysing Bend it like Beckham (2002) T3 Joe Speech act: indirect directive Because I believe that she’s got Value my expert judgement tremendous potential. T4 Mr B Speech act: indirect commissive I think we know better our daughter’s The family’s knowledge about her future potential. overrides the opinion of an outsider 29  3 Intercultural Pragmatics Analysing Bend it like Beckham (2002) T5 Jess Speech act: Expressive But playing for the team is an honour. Trying to win over her parents by using a concept they can relate to. T6 Mrs B Speech act: indirect commissive What bigger honour is there than Flouting the maxim of quantity respecting your elders? 30  3 Intercultural Pragmatics Analysing Bend it like Beckham (2002) T5 Mr B Speech act: Assertive Young man, when I was a teenager in Living in a society that discriminates Nairobi, I was the best fast-bowler in against them reinforces the need for our school. Our team even won the preserving one’s identity East African Cup. But when I came to Maxim of relevance is observed this country, nothing. I was not allowed to play in any of the teams. And these bloody Goras in the club-house made fun of my turban, and sent me of packing. 31  3 Intercultural Pragmatics Analysing Bend it like Beckham (2002) T8 Joe Speech act: Assertive But now it’s Joe tries to explain that things have changed, T10 Jess but is interrupted by Mr Bhamra But Dad, it’s all changing now. Look at Nasser Jess picks up where Joe left Hussein. He’s captain of the England cricket team. He’s Asian. T11 Mrs B Speech act: Assertive/Expressive Hussein’s a Muslim name. Their families are Mrs B flouts the maxim of manner and the different. often-heard comment annoys Jess T12 Jess Oh Mum! 32  4 Conversation and discourse analysis What is conversation and why do we use it?  Social interaction is the primordial means through which the business of the social world is transacted, the identities of its participants are affirmed or denied, and its cultures are transmitted, renewed and modified. (Goodwin & Heritage 1990: 283) Conversation is central to how we use language All humans engage in conversation interaction Our society depends on conversation in order to function We use conversation to develop relationships with each other Conversation is carried out by things other than language as well (eye gaze, silences,...), so it is not just a linguistic code 34  4 Conversation and discourse analysis Turn-taking  CA [Conversation analysis, TB] looks at social interaction as a linear, ongoing event, which unfolds little by little and implies the negotiation of cooperation between speakers along the way. (Cutting 2015: 11) Cooperation in interaction is managed by speakers through turn-taking. Assumption: Speakers take turns, first one talking, then another. How do speakers know when they take their turn? – They look out for a Transition Relevance Place (TRP) This is usually at the end of a sentence Example 16 A: I was wondering if you had a moment. B: Sure. A: Great, thanks. 35  4 Conversation and discourse analysis Interruptions When a speaker does not want to wait for the TRP, they can interrupt. Interruptions are usually indicated by // in a transcript. Example 17 B: yes. Tell me what it // is you want A: // umm. Um, may I first of all request the introduction, please? (Gumperz 1982: 175, cited in Cutting 2015: 11) 36  4 Conversation and discourse analysis Overlaps When hearers predict that the turn is about to be completed, they may start before the turn actually ends. This is called overlap and is usually indicated by a = Example 18 Interviewee: But not no more. Yeah = Interviewer: = What happened to them= (Schiffrin 1994: 240, cited in Cutting 2015: 11) 37  5 Conversation and discourse analysis Pauses CA also studies pauses or attributable silence. They are often indicated either by symbols, e.g. indicating (.) for a short pause or values (1.2) in seconds. Here, A interprets the long pause as an affirmative answer. Example 19 A: Did you have a good time last night? B: (3) Yeah. A: So he asked you out, then? B: He did. 38