Introductory Class To Anatomy PDF

INTRODUCTORY CLASS TO ANATOMY NOW THAT YOU HERE NOW THAT YOU ARE NEW LET BEGIN WITH THIS UJAH, WILLIAMS OCHE DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY BINGHAM UNIVERSITY  Definition: The branch of science concerned with the bodily structure of humans, animals, and o...

INTRODUCTORY CLASS TO ANATOMY NOW THAT YOU HERE NOW THAT YOU ARE NEW LET BEGIN WITH THIS UJAH, WILLIAMS OCHE DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY BINGHAM UNIVERSITY  Definition: The branch of science concerned with the bodily structure of humans, animals, and other living organisms, especially as revealed by dissection and the separation of parts. Anatomy refers to the internal and external structures of the body and their physical relationships, whereas physiology refers to the study of the functions of those structures.  There are several types of anatomy. The major types include; Gross anatomy Histology Embryology, Comparative Anatomy Cell molecular Anatomy Genetics  Brief history This ancient discipline reached its culmination between 1500 and 1850, by which time its subject matter was firmly established. None of the world’s oldest civilizations dissected a human body, which most people regarded with superstitious awe and associated with the spirit of the departed soul.  Beliefs in life after death and a disquieting uncertainty concerning the possibility of bodily resurrection further inhibited systematic study. knowledge of the body was acquired by treating wounds, aiding in childbirth, and setting broken limbs. The field remained speculative rather than descriptive, though, until the achievements of the Alexandrian medical school and its foremost figure  Herophilus (flourished 300 bce), who dissected human cadavers and thus gave anatomy a considerable factual basis for the first time. Herophilus made many important discoveries and was followed by his younger contemporary Erasistratus, father of physiology. Hippocrates is considered to be the father of modern medicine because in his books, which are more than 70. He described in a scientific manner, many diseases and their treatment  HIPPOCRATIC THEORY Hippocrates is credited with being the first person to believe that diseases were caused naturally, not because of superstition and gods. Hippocrates was credited by the disciples of Pythagoras of allying philosophy and medicine. He separated the discipline of medicine from religion, believing and arguing that disease was not a punishment inflicted by the gods but rather the product of environmental factors, diet, and living habits. Indeed there is not a single mention of a mystical illness in the entirety of the Hippocratic Corpus. However, Hippocrates did work with many convictions that were based on what is now known to be incorrect anatomy and physiology, such as Humorism  Humorism, the humoral theory, or humoralism, was a system of medicine detailing a supposed makeup and workings of the human body, adopted by Ancient Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers. Humorism began to fall out of favor in the 1850s with the advent of germ theory, which was able to show that many diseases previously thought to be humoral were in fact caused by microbes.  Planes of the Body Coronal Plane (Frontal Plane) - A vertical plane running from side to side; divides the body or any of its parts into anterior and posterior portions. Sagittal Plane (Lateral Plane) - A vertical plane running from front to back; divides the body or any of its parts into right and left sides. Axial Plane (Transverse Plane) - A horizontal plane; divides the body or any of its parts into upper and lower parts. Median plane - Sagittal plane through the midline of the body; divides the body or any of its parts into right and left halves  Directional Terms Directional terms describe the positions of structures using other structures or locations in the body. Superior or cranial - toward the head end of the body; Inferior or caudal - away from the head; Anterior or ventral – front;  Posterior or dorsal - back Medial - toward the midline of the body. Lateral - away from the midline of the body. Proximal - toward or nearest the point of origin. Distal - away from the point or origin of a part.  BODY CAVITY  TERMS AND MOVEMENTS Anatomical terms of movement are used to describe the actions of muscles upon the skeleton. Muscles contract to produce movement at joints, and the subsequent movements can be precisely described using this terminology. The terms used assume that the body begins in the anatomical position. Most movements have an opposite movement – also known as an antagonistic movement. Flexion refers to a movement that decreases the angle between two body parts. Flexion at the elbow is decreasing the angle between the ulna and the humerus. When the knee flexes, the ankle moves closer to the buttock, and the angle between the femur and tibia gets smaller. Extension refers to a movement that increases the angle between two body parts. Extension at the elbow is increasing the angle between the ulna and the humerus. Extension of the knee  Abduction and Adduction Abduction and adduction are two terms that are used to describe movements towards or away from the midline of the body. Abduction is a movement away from the midline – just as abducting someone is to take them away. For example, abduction of the shoulder raises the arms out to the sides of the body. Adduction is a movement towards the midline. Adduction of the hip squeezes the legs together. In fingers and toes, the midline used is not the midline of the body, but of the hand and foot respectively. Therefore, abducting the fingers spreads them out.  Medial and Lateral Rotation Medial and lateral rotation describe movement of the limbs around their long axis: Medial rotation is a rotational movement towards the midline. It is sometimes referred to as internal rotation. Lateral rotation is a rotating movement away from the midline. This is in the opposite direction to the movements described above.  Elevation and Depression Elevation refers to movement in a superior direction (e.g. shoulder shrug), Depression refers to movement in an inferior direction.  Pronation and Supination Rotation of the forearm and the hand so that the palm faces forward or upward is called supination. With your hand resting on a table in front of you, and keeping your shoulder and elbow still, turn your hand onto its back, palm up. This is the supine position, and so this movement is supination. Rotation of the hand and forearm so that the palm faces backward or downward is called pronation. These terms also apply to the whole body – when lying flat on the back, the body is supine. When lying flat on the front, the body is prone.  Dorsiflexion and Plantarflexion Dorsiflexion and plantarflexion are used to describe movements at the ankle. They refer to the two surfaces of the foot; the dorsum (superior surface) and the plantar surface (the sole). Dorsiflexion refers to flexion at the ankle, so that the foot points more superiorly. Plantarflexion refers extension at the ankle, so that the foot points inferiorly.  Inversion and Eversion Inversion and eversion are movements which occur at the ankle joint, referring to the rotation of the foot around its long axis. Inversion involves the movement of the sole towards the median plane – so that the sole faces in a medial direction. Eversion involves the movement of the sole away from the median plane – so that the sole faces in a lateral direction.  Opposition and Reposition Opposition brings the thumb and little finger together. Reposition is a movement that moves the thumb and the little finger away from each other, effectively reversing opposition.  Circumduction Circumduction can be defined as a conical movement of a limb extending from the joint at which the movement is controlled. It is sometimes talked about as a circular motion, but is more accurately conical due to the ‘cone’ formed by the moving limb.  Protraction and Retraction Protraction describes the anterolateral movement of the scapula on the thoracic wall that allows the shoulder to move anteriorly. In practice, this is the movement of ‘reaching out’ to something. Retraction refers to the posteromedial movement of the scapula on the thoracic wall, which causes the shoulder region to move posteriorly i.e. picking something up.  INTRODUCTION TO BODY SYSTEM Body systems are groups of organs and tissues that work together to perform important jobs for the body. Some organs may be part of more than one body system if they serve more than one function. Other organs and tissues serve a purpose in only one body system.  Respiratory System The respiratory system facilitates gas exchange between cells and the environment. The structures involved include the nasal passage, the trachea, and the lungs. Digestive System The digestive system ingests food and breaks it down into usable nutrients before excreting solid waste products. It includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines.  Cardiovascular/Circulatory System The cardiovascular system also called the circulatory system, which could also include the lymphatic system is responsible for the transport of materials through the body. These substances include oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products. The cardiovascular system includes the heart, the blood, and the blood vessels.  Urinary System The urinary system (sometimes called the renal system) extracts and excretes dissolved waste products from the blood. The main organs that function in the urinary system are the kidneys and bladder. Endocrine System The endocrine system secretes chemical signals that allow body systems to respond to environmental changes and to one another. It includes hormone-producing tissues of the pineal gland and pituitary gland in the brain; the thyroid gland; the adrenal glands; the pancreas; and the ovaries, and testes.  Fight or flight response – When a threat appears in the environment, the adrenal glands secrete a flood of adrenaline. In response to this chemical message, the heart pumps blood faster, breathing deepens to take in more oxygen, and the nervous system sharpens perception and memory formation. Other changes also occur to make the body ready to fight or flee from a potential threat. Reproductive signals – When the body is ready to reproduce, the ovaries or testes send chemical messages that influence other organs, including the brain. In the female reproductive system, preparing the uterus for pregnancy involves a complex cascade of chemical messages that repeat on a monthly cycle – the menstrual cycle. Hungry or full – When the body is hungry, your stomach releases a hormone (called ghrelin) that tells the brain and other  Nervous system The nervous system allows us to perceive and respond to the world around us. This also includes our emotions and personality. The nervous system includes the brain, the brain stem, and all the nerves. Musculoskeletal system The musculoskeletal system gives the body structure and allows us to move. The system of muscles operate to move the organism and stimulate the internal organs. There are three main types of muscles human: 1. smooth muscle, 2. skeletal muscle, and 3. cardiac muscle.  Integumentary System These systems cover the body and regulate its exchange with the outside world. This includes the skin, hair, nails, sweat, and other glands that secrete substances onto the skin. Reproductive System The reproductive system facilitates the production of offspring. It includes, for example, the ovaries, uterus, mammary glands (breasts), penis, and testes.