Upheaval1.docx

Upheaval, Transformation, & Isolation: A Global History Religious & Intellectual Movements, 1500-1750 Global Webs introduced new information on a increasingly global scale New information weakened existing intellectual traditions and apparatuses, but also allowed for the expansion of these...

Upheaval, Transformation, & Isolation: A Global History Religious & Intellectual Movements, 1500-1750 Global Webs introduced new information on a increasingly global scale New information weakened existing intellectual traditions and apparatuses, but also allowed for the expansion of these ideas to new regions Urbanization and Improved Technologies quickened expansion New Inventions: The Printing Press During the Song dynasty, Chinese officials used bronze plates to print paper money. This technology then filtered into Korea. In the 1430s, Korean printers used moveable metal printers to start a small flurry of publishing. New Inventions: Gutenberg's Printing Press Around 1430–1450, people including Johannes Gutenberg (Mainz, Germany) started work on metal type. By 1500, 236 towns in Europe had printing presses, leading to a literary revolution. Devices were carried overseas to Spanish Mexico (1539), Japan (1590), etc. The European Renaissance Pressure on the Byzantine Empire pushed Greek intellectuals to seek refuge in Italian universities. They brought all kinds of “new” ideas with them. The study of ancient Greek and Roman wisdom brought an intellectual “rebirth.” Italian fragmentations were crucial (i.e., Florence). The Protestant Reformation The theologian Martin Luther (1483–1546) developed two ideas about Christianity: ― Scriptures have primacy over the traditions of the church. ― “Justification by faith alone,” meaning that souls could salvaged by personal faith His Ninety-Five Theses spread like wildfire through Europe. Luther’s ideas soon appeared elsewhere with many variations. In Geneva, John Calvin made a gloomy revision with predestination. Protestantism took root in Switzerland, France, Britain, Germany, etc. The Counter-Reformation Between 1550 and 1620, the Catholic Church did find ways to check Protestantism: The 1555 Peace of Augsburg held that central European princes would choose the state religion. The Catholic Church “cleaned up its act,” cracking down on corruption in its ranks. Papacy reestablished its Inquisition (1542). Catholicism also quickly went global. Europe: Geographies of Religion Witch Trials: Europe Catholic and Protestant tension caused another disruption: witch trials. These had been rare in Europe prior to 1550. Between 1500 and 1700, about 40,000 to 60,000 “witches” were killed. The Scientific Revolution Catholic and Protestant tension caused another disruption: witch trials. These had been rare in Europe prior to 1550. Between 1500 and 1700, about 40,000 to 60,000 “witches” were killed. Urbanization, universities, sustained printing, and political fragmentation encouraged the Scientific Revolution’s growth. The widespread use of Latin also helped spread ideas; scholars all over Europe understood it and could communicate with it. Careful study and experimentation flourished. Astronomy: Geocentrism v. Heliocentrism In 1514, Nicolaus Copernicus theorized a heliocentric system in which planets circled the sun—it didn’t catch on. Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac Newton confirmed the theory. Kepler and Galileo were persecuted for their work. Chemistry & Medicine European chemists were driven by the hopes of alchemy (transforming cheap metals into gold). Evolved the methodology of scientific experiments European physicians also made big discoveries. In 1628, William Harvey explained blood circulation. Institutions & Connections Every field of science experienced drastic upheaval through the Global web—botany and zoology most of all. Science contributed to technology in mining, cartography, navigation, and clock making. Science soon became a global undertaking. A Summary The Islamic World: Commerce/urbanization caused significant shifts in Iran’s Shi’ism. In the early years of Islam, Sunni caliphs crushed Shi’a factions, making them a tiny minority for centuries. Sufism emphasized a mystic intimacy with God. Sufism played a central role in Iran’s religious shift. The Shia Reformation Sufi groups were strongest where states and law were weakened (true for Iran). The strongest of these groups in Iran was the Safavi. At some point in 1450, the leader of the Safavi embraced Shi’a Islam. His grandson, Ismail, conquered all of Iran and most of Iraq by 1510. Shi’ism Under the Safavids The Safavids eventually endorsed the forced conversion of Jews, Zoroastrians, and most Christians. They also killed thousands of Sufis. The most effective of the Safavid rulers, Shah Abbas I (r. 1587–1629) enjoyed economic and military success and also supported the arts. ― He sponsored Shi’a theologians, including the famous Mulla Sadra (1571–1640). The Wide Islamic World The shift to Shi’ism in Iran was the most significant but not the only one in Islamdom. Iranian refugees of the Safavids brought their philosophy, art, and literature to northern India. Hajj to Mecca drew Muslims from West Africa to South Asia who mingled, debated, and shared ideas. An Indian Reformation Nanak (1469–1539) was born into a Hindu family but had a Muslim teacher. ― He was fascinated by both religions, and at age 27 he had a vision that God told him, “there is no Muslim, there is no Hindu.” Nanak’s followers, who believed that Islam and Hinduism were one, became known as Sikhs Nanak died in 1539, but Sikhism went on. He left behind an enormous number of hymns, which are collectively called the Adi Granth (“the first book”). ― It was mainly written in Punjabi (not Sanskrit) making it accessible to read. Sikhism held special attraction for women and low-caste Hindus, promising liberation Consider the Evidence: A Hymn from the Adi Granth A Confucian Reformation Since the Song dynasty (960–1279), a revisionary ideology was spreading among the intellectual elite: neo-Confucianism. In the early 1500s, a philosopher named Wang Yangming challenged this philosophy. He shared a number of controversial ideas: ― Experience was also a path to education. ― All the people filling the street are sages.” The Christian Mission: China & Japan About 900 Jesuits flocked to China. They targeted top officials and used their skills in map making and cannon casting to gain an audience. Their efforts failed there. There was more success in Japan until a more unified Japan (1590) banned conversions (1597, 1614). Upheaval: A Historiographic Consideration The intellectual upheaval across Eurasia was uneven in three main respects: ― It was geographically uneven. Europe and specific parts of Europe experienced massive turmoil compared to other places. ― Cities, rather than the remote country or the mountains, saw much more action. ― The elite prioritized most upheavals. Incorporating “Histories from Below”: Women’s Studies Due to widespread sexism and misogyny, no women in Eurasia were able to make the same impact as Newton, Nanak, Wang Yangming, etc. Women thinkers were discouraged and even executed for “witchcraft.” Successful scholars, such as Eva Ekeblad, could see their credentials revoked. Womens’ Resistance Yet, women did participate in the upheavals. Margaret Cavendish wrote poetry, plays, etc. Maria Sibylla Merian was a self-funded botanist who did the first work on caterpillars turning into butterflies. Laura Bassi taught at a university for 45 years.