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**ONE DIMENSIONAL VERSUS MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODELS** **One-dimensional Models** Explain behavior in terms of a single cause. Could mean a paradigm, school, or conceptual approach. Tend to ignore information from other areas. Example: Explaining obsessive-compulsive disorder as the result of family h...

**ONE DIMENSIONAL VERSUS MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODELS** **One-dimensional Models** Explain behavior in terms of a single cause. Could mean a paradigm, school, or conceptual approach. Tend to ignore information from other areas. Example: Explaining obsessive-compulsive disorder as the result of family history alone **Multidimensional Models** Interdisciplinary, eclectic, and integrative. "System" of influences that cause and maintain suffering. Draw upon information from several sources. Abnormal behavior results from multiple influences Abnormal behavior results from multiple influences **MULTIDIMENSIONAL PERSPECTIVE** - - - - - ---------------------------------------------- **GENETIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY** ---------------------------------------------- Genes don't fully determine whether a person develops a mental disorder; however, there is substantial evidence that most mental disorders show at least some genetic influence (Plomin et al., 2013; Rutter, 2006a). Some of these genetic influences, such as broad temperamental features, are first apparent in newborn and children. **THE NATURE OF GENES** A dominant gene is one of a pair of genes that strongly influences a particular trait, and we need only one of them to determine, for example, our eye color or hair color. A recessive gene, by contrast, must be paired with another (recessive) gene to determine a trait. When we have a dominant gene, using Mendelian laws of genetics we can predict fairly accurately how many offspring will develop a certain trait, characteristic, or disorder, depending on whether one or both of the parents carry that dominant gene. **NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN THE STUDY OF GENES AND BEHAVIOR SCIENTISTS** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **McClearn et al. (1997)** compared 110 Swedish identical twin pairs, | | at least 80 years old, with 130 same-sex fraternal twin pairs of a | | similar age and found heritability estimates for specific cognitive | | abilities, such as memory or ability to perceive spatial relations, | | ranged from 32% to 62%. | | | | - - | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **INTERACTION OF GENES AND THE ENVIRONMENT** Eric Kandel -- **speculated that the process of learning affects more than behavior.** He suggested that the very genetic structure of cells may change as a result of learning if genes that were inactive or dormant interact with the environment in such a way that they become active. **THE DIATHESIS -STRESS MODEL 10 THE GENE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION MODEL** *Genetic endowment may increase the probability that an individual will experience stressful life events.* Example: People with a genetic vulnerability to develop a certain disorder, such as blood-injury injection phobia, may also have personality traits of impulsiveness for example that makes them more likely to be involved in minor accidents that would result in their seeing blood. **NEUROSCIENCE AND ITS CONTRIBUTIONS TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY** **The Central Nervous System-** Process all information received from our sense organs and react as necessary. **Spinal Cord** - primary function is to facilitate the sending of messages to and from the brain. - - - Synapses -- any one nerve cell have multiple connections to other neurons. - - - - **THE STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN** **Two parts of the Brain** (BrainStem and Forebrain) **Brain Stem** -- is the lower and more ancient part of the brain; handles most of the essential automatic functions such as breathing, sleeping and moving around in a coordinated way. - - - - **Midbrain** - - **Forebrain** **Thalamus and Hypothalamus** -- are involved broadly with regulating behavior and emotion. These structures function primarily as a relay between the forebrain and the remaining lower areas of the brain stem. **Thalamus** -- relays sensory information (except smell) to the higher regions of the brain. **Hypothalamus** -- plays a key role in many vital bodily functions, including regulation of body temperature, concentration of fluids in the blood, and reproductive processes, as well as emotional and motivational state. 18 Forebrain **Corpus Callosum** -- connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain. **The Limbic system** -- plays important roles in emotional processing and memory. - - - **Cerebral Cortex** -- is the largest part of the forebrain which contains 80% of all neurons in the central nervous system; the part of the brain provides us with our distinctly human qualities, allowing us to look to the future and plan, to reason, and to create. - - **LOBES OF THE BRAIN**  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | - - - - | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM** Two Major Components 1\. **Somatic Nervous System** -- controls muscles; damage in this area might make it difficult for us to engage in any voluntary movement like talking. 2\. **Autonomic Nervous System** -- regulate the cardiovascular system and the endocrine system and to perform various functions including aiding digestion and regulating body temperature; this includes Sympathetic Nervous System and parasympathetic nervous system. - - - - **Sympathetic Nervous System**- responsible for mobilizing the body during times of stress or danger by rapidly activating the organs and glands under its control. 1\. Heart beats faster thereby increasing blood flow of blood to the muscles; 2\. Respiration increases, allowing more oxygen to get into the blood and brain; 3.Adrenal glands are stimulated by the **Parasympathetic Nervous System** -- one of the functions is to balance the sympathetic system. **Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis** **NEUROTRANSMITTERS** **Glutamate and GABA (amino acid category)** - - **Serotonin (Monoamine category)** ✓Technical name is 5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT) ✓Approximately six major circuits of serotonin spread from the midbrain, looping around its various parts. ✓Believed to influence a great deal of behavior particularly the way we process information. ✓Regulates behavior, moods and thought process. ✓Extreme low level are associated with less inhibition and with instability, impulsivity and tendency to overreact to situations. ✓Low level associated with aggression, suicide, impulsive overeating & excessive social behavior. **Norepinephrine (Monoamine category)** ✓Also known as noradrenaline ✓Stimulated two groups of receptors called alpha adrenergic and beta-adrenergic receptors. ✓Regulate or modulate certain behavioral tendencies and is not directly involved in specific patterns of behavior or in psychological disorder. **Dopamine (Monoamine category)** ✓Also termed as catecholamine because of the similarity of its chemical structure to epinephrine and norepinephrine. ✓Have been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and disorders of addiction. ✓Some research shows it may play a significant role in depression and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. **IMPLICATIONS TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY** **BEHAVIORAL AND COGNITIVE SCIENCE Cognitive Science** -- is concerned with how we acquire and process information and how we store and ultimately retrieve it. **LEARNED HELPLESSNESS** **Martin Seligman and Steven Maier** -- described the phenomenon of learned helplessness which occurs when rats or other animals encounter conditions over which they have no control. If the rats are confronted with a situation in which they receive occasional foot shocks, they can function well if they learn they can cope with this shocks by doing something to avoid them. But if this animals learn their behavior has no effect on their environment---sometimes they get shocked and sometimes they don't, no matter what they do- they become "helpless" in other words, they give up attempting to copy and seem to develop the animal equivalent of depression **Learned Optimism** -- if people faced with considerable stress and difficulty in their lives nevertheless display an optimistic, upbeat attitude, they are likely to function better psychologically and physically. **SOCIAL LEARNING** **Albert Bandura** -- observed that organisms do not have to experience certain events in their environment to learn effectively, they can learn just as much by observing what happens to someone else in a given situation and this is known as Modeling or observational learning. **PREPARED LEARNING** ✓We have become highly prepared for learning about certain types of objects or situations over the course of evolution because this knowledge contributes to the survival of the species. **COGNITIVE SCIENCE AND THE UNCONSCIOUS** **Lawrence Weiskrantz** -- described a phenomenon called blind sight or unconscious vision. **Blind sight or Unconscious Vision** -- he relates the case of a young man who, for medical reasons, had a small section of his visual cortex surgically removed. Although the operation was successful, the young man became blind in both eyes. Later, during routine tests, a physician raised his hand to the left of the patient who, much to the shock of his doctors, reached out and touched it. **Implicit Memory --** is apparent when someone clearly acts on the basis of things that have happened in the past but can't remember the events. **Explicit Memory** --a conscious memory for events **EMOTIONS** **Charles Darwin** --pointed out more than 100 years ago, this kind of reaction seems to be programmed in all animals, including humans, which suggests that it serves a useful evolutionary function. **Flight or fight response** -- the alarm reaction that activates during potentially life-threatening emergencies. **COMPONENTS OF EMOTIONS** **Three related Components of Emotion** 1\. Emotion and Behavior -- basic patterns of emotional behavior (freeze, escape, approach, attack) that differ in fundamental ways. Emotional Behavior is a means of communication. 2\. Physiology of emotion -- Emotion is a brain function involving (generally) the more primitive brain areas. Direct connection between these areas and the eyes may allow emotional processing to bypass the influence of higher cognitive processes. 3\. Cognition Aspects of Emotion -- appraisals, attributions and other ways of processing the world around you that are fundamental to emotional experience **EMOTIONS AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY** We now know that suppressing almost any kind of emotional response, such as anger or fear, increases sympathetic nervous system activity, which may contribute to psychopathology. Our emotions seem to have a more direct effect. Thus, basic emotions of fear, anger, sadness or distress and excitement may contribute to many psychological disorders and may even define them. Emotions and mood also affect our cognitive process: if your mood is positive, then your associations, interpretations, and impressions also tend to be positive **CULTURAL,SOCIAL AND INTERPERSONAL FACTORS** **Fright Disorder** -- characterized by exaggerated startle responses, and other observable fear and anxiety reactions. **Susto** -- in Latin America, describes various anxiety based symptoms, including insomnia, irritability, phobias and the marked somatic symptoms of sweating and increased heart rate (tachycardia); individual believes that he or she has become the object of black magic, or witchcraft and is suddenly badly frightened. **Voodo Death** -- Haitian phenomenon suggested that the sentence of death by a medicine man may create an intolerable automatic arousal in the participant, who has little ability to cope because there is no social support.