Anatomy & Physiology Fundamentals PDF

Okay, here is a detailed briefing document summarizing the key themes, ideas, and facts from the provided sources on Anatomy & Physiology: Briefing Document: Anatomy and Physiology Fundamentals Introduction: This document compiles key concepts from several study guide excerpts related to Anatomy and...

Okay, here is a detailed briefing document summarizing the key themes, ideas, and facts from the provided sources on Anatomy & Physiology: Briefing Document: Anatomy and Physiology Fundamentals Introduction: This document compiles key concepts from several study guide excerpts related to Anatomy and Physiology (A&P). It covers fundamental definitions, levels of organization, tissue types, skeletal system components, and an overview of muscle physiology. The focus is on providing a clear and concise understanding of the core principles. I. Foundational Concepts & Organization ​ Anatomy Defined: Anatomy is the study of the body's structure, involving dissection and observation. "Define anatomy - study of the body structure (cutting up or open)". It's about "what" the body is made of. Gross Anatomy (macroscopic) focuses on large structures visible to the naked eye. ​ Physiology Defined: Physiology explores how the body functions and performs vital processes. "Physiology - study of function and how organisms perform vital function." It's about "how" the body works, considered more complex than anatomy. ​ Pathophysiology: This is the study of how the body's functions are disrupted in disease states, representing the consequences of improper functioning. "Pathophysiology: Is the branch of science that describe the consequences of the improper functioning of the body." ​ Disease: A disorder of structure or function in the human body. "Disease: A disorder of structure or function in the human body" ​ Levels of Organization: The body is organized hierarchically from cells to a complete organism: ​ Cellular Level: The basic structural unit of the body. ​ "Cell: Is the basic structural unit of the body" ​ Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells working together. "Define tissue - A group of cells working together to perform a specific function." ​ Organ Level: Structures composed of two or more tissue types. "Define organ - composed of two tissues working together to perform specific functions." ​ Organ System Level: Interacting organs performing coordinated functions. "Define organ system - Consist of interacting organs." ​ Organism Level: The highest level - collection of all organ systems. "Define organism - highest level of organization. Collection of organ systems working together to maintain life and health." ​ The progression can be represented as: "Cells → Tissues → Organs → System" ​ Homeostasis: Maintaining a stable internal environment crucial for health. "homeo-unchanging + stasis- standing) presence of a stable internal environment, failure to maintain homeostasis leads to illness or death." ​ Negative Feedback: A regulatory mechanism where a change triggers a response that opposes the initial change, minimizing deviations. "Negative feedback - Effector opposes or negates the original stimulus, Minimizes change" ​ Positive Feedback: A regulatory mechanism where a change triggers a response that enhances the initial change, leading to an amplified effect. "Positive feedback - stimulus  produces a response that exaggerates or enhances the original change (rather than opposing it) Tends to produce extreme responses, does not restore homeostasis." II. Basic Chemistry and Cell Structure ​ Matter and Elements: The body is composed of matter, which is anything that has mass and occupies space. This matter is made up of elements (oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen being the most abundant) which are composed of atoms. ​ Atoms: The basic unit of matter containing a nucleus (protons and neutrons) and orbiting electrons. ​ Atomic Number: Number of protons in the nucleus. ​ Atomic Mass: Number of protons plus neutrons. ​ Isotopes: Different forms of the same atom (same atomic number, different mass), some are unstable (radioisotopes). ​ Chemical Bonds:Ionic Bonds: Bonds formed via the transfer of electrons to form ions (cations and anions) ​ Covalent Bonds: Bonds formed via the sharing of electrons. ​ Hydrogen Bonds: Weak bonds between polar molecules (intermolecular bonds) ​ Ions and Electrolytes: Ions are charged atoms or groups of atoms. Electrolytes form ions when dissolved in water and conduct an electrical current. Ionization is the breaking of electrolytes into ions. ​ Molecules and Compounds: Molecules are two or more atoms bonded together; Compounds are two or more different types of atoms bonded together (with the exception of water, which is considered both). ​ Chemical Reactions: Interactions of atoms/molecules to form new combinations and require a catalyst (enzymes are biological catalysts). ​ Acids and Bases: Acids dissociate to release hydrogen ions (H+), bases combine with H+. ​ pH Scale: Measures H+ concentration, from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most alkaline), with 7 as neutral. Normal blood pH is slightly alkaline (7.35-7.45) ​ Acidosis: too many H+, pH < 7.35. ​ Alkalosis: too few H+, pH > 7.45. ​ Blood pH is maintained by buffer systems, the lungs, and kidneys. ​ Energy Forms: Chemical (stored in bonds), Mechanical (movement), Thermal (heat), Electrical (charged particles), Radiant (waves), Nuclear (radioactivity). ​ ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate, the primary energy transfer molecule. ​ Mixtures, Solutions, and Suspensions:Mixtures: Combinations of substances separable by physical means. ​ Solutions: Evenly distributed substances (solute in solvent) that are always clear. ​ Suspensions: Mixtures with large particles that settle. Colloidal suspensions have particles that remain suspended. ​ Cells: Basic units of living matter, and are encased by a semipermeable cell membrane which regulates what enters and exits. ​ Cell Membrane: Selective barrier composed of phospholipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. ​ Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA) and controls the cell. ​ Contains Nucleoplasm, Nucleolus, and Chromatin (DNA/genes). ​ Cytoplasm: Gel-like substance inside the cell. ​ Organelles: Including mitochondria (ATP production), ribosomes (protein synthesis), endoplasmic reticulum (RER with ribosomes, SER without), Golgi apparatus (protein  packaging), lysosomes (cellular waste breakdown), cytoskeleton (structure and support), and centrioles (cell division). ​ Movement Across the Cell Membrane:Passive Mechanisms: Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, filtration (no energy required) ​ Active Mechanisms: Active transport pumps, endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis), exocytosis (energy required). ​ Cell Division:Mitosis: Cellular reproduction for growth and repair, producing two identical daughter cells (each with 46 chromosomes). ​ The phases of mitosis are: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase. ​ Cell Cycle: Includes Interphase (G1, S, G2) and Mitosis. ​ Cell Differentiation: Cells become specialized in structure and function. ​ Stem Cells: Undifferentiated cells that produce additional undifferentiated cells. ​ Disorders of Cellular Growth:Tumors: Abnormal cell growth, can be benign (noncancerous) or malignant (cancerous). ​ Metastasis: The spread of cancerous cells ​ Apoptosis: Cell suicide to remove old, damaged cells. ​ Necrosis: Cell death due to injury. III. Metabolism & Disease ​ Metabolism: Cellular processing of raw materials. ​ Anabolism: Reactions that build larger molecules (requires ATP). ​ Catabolism: Reactions that break down larger molecules (releases energy/ATP). ​ Carbohydrates: Organic compounds of C, H, and O (sugars, starches, glycogen, cellulose) Used immediately for energy, stored as glycogen or fat. ​ Glycolysis: Anaerobic breakdown of glucose into pyruvic acid. ​ Aerobic Respiration: Glucose breakdown with oxygen to produce CO2, H2O, and ATP. ​ Gluconeogenesis: The making of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources. ​ Lipids: Fats and oils, consisting of fatty acids and glycerol ​ Triglycerides: Storage in adipose tissue ​ Phospholipids: Cell membrane components ​ Steroids: Cholesterol, bile salts, Vitamin D. ​ Good Cholesterol (HDL) vs. Bad Cholesterol (LDL): HDL transports cholesterol from tissues to the liver for excretion. ​ Proteins: Participate in every body function and are composed of amino acids held together by peptide bonds. ​ Essential Amino Acids: Must be obtained from the diet. ​ Nonessential Amino Acids: Can be synthesized by the body. ​ Protein Functions: Synthesis of hormones, enzymes, antibodies, hemoglobin, etc.; Can be used for ATP production or gluconeogenesis if needed. ​ Nitrogen waste is converted to urea by the liver and excreted by the kidneys. ​ Disease: Failure of the body to function normally. ​ Pathogens: Disease-producing microorganisms. ​ Infection: Invasion by a pathogen, can be localized or systemic. ​ Nosocomial Infection: Hospital-acquired infections. ​ Reservoir: Source of infection. ​ Resistance: Ability to ward off disease. ​ Susceptibility: Lack of resistance.  ​ Sterilization: Process that destroys all living organisms. ​ Types of Pathogens: Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi, Protozoa, Worms, Arthropods. ​ Bacteria: Single-celled, can be pathogenic, often have cell walls. ​ Viruses: Lack cell walls, consist of DNA/RNA and a protein shell and need a host to reproduce. ​ Protozoa: Animal-like microbes (amoebas, ciliates, flagellates, sporozoa). ​ Fungi: Mycotic infections. ​ Worms: Multicellular organisms that can be pathogenic (helminths). ​ Arthropods: Animals with jointed legs, can be ectoparasites. ​ Spread of Infection: Person to person, Environment to person, Animal to person. IV. Skeletal System ​ Functions: The skeletal system supports body weight, protects organs, facilitates movement with muscles, stores minerals (calcium and phosphorus), and produces blood cells. ​ Components: Bones, joints, cartilage, and ligaments. ​ Bone Classification: Long, short, flat, irregular. ​ Bone Types: ​ Compact Bone: Hard, organized into osteons, forms the shafts of long bones. ​ Spongy Bone: Soft, contains trabeculae and bone marrow, often found in the ends of long bones and within flat bones. ​ Long Bone Structure: ​ Diaphysis: Shaft of the bone. Contains the medullary cavity that holds bone marrow. ​ Medullary Cavity: Contains Red bone marrow for red blood cell production and Yellow bone marrow for energy storage ​ Epiphysis: The ends of the bone composed of spongy bone and covered by a layer of compact bone, forms joints. ​ Articular Cartilage: Covers the epiphysis to form joints. ​ Epiphyseal Disc: Site of bone growth in length. ​ Periosteum: outer covering of bone. ​ Bone Cells: ​ Osteogenic Cells (Osteoprogenitor Cells): Stem cells that divide into osteoblasts. ​ Osteoblasts: Form new bone matrix (osteogenesis/ossification); synthesize unmineralized matrix (osteoid) which then mineralizes. "Osteoblasts : form new bone ( osteogenesis or ossification ). Produces unmineralized matrix (ostroid ) then assists in depositing calcium salts to convert osteoid to bone." ​ Osteocytes: Mature bone cells, maintain the protein and mineral content of the bone. "Osteocytes : mature bone cells that cannot divide. Maintain protein and mineral content of the surrounding matrix." ​ Osteoclasts: Remove and remodel bone matrix. They release acids and enzymes to dissolve matrices and release minerals, a process called resorption. "Osteoclasts: removed and remodel bone matrix. Release acids and proteolytic enzymes to dissolve matrices and release stored minerals." ​ Ossification (Bone Formation): ​ Intramembranous Ossification: Replacement of connective tissue with bone (flat bones). ​ Endochondral Ossification: Replacement of cartilage with bone (long, irregular, and short bones). ​ Bone Growth: ​ Length: Occurs at the epiphyseal disc, impacted by hormones (growth hormone, estrogen, testosterone). ​ Width: Osteoclasts hollow the bone, while osteoblasts deposit bone on the outer surface. ​ Bone Markings: Condyle, epicondyle, head, facet, crest, spine, tuberosity, trochanter, foramen, fossa, meatus, sinus. ​ Broken Bones: Simple, compound, greenstick. ​ Skeletal Divisions: ​ Axial Skeleton: 80 bones, forms the longitudinal axis. Includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. ​ Appendicular Skeleton: 126 bones, includes limbs and girdles. ​ Axial Skeleton Details: ​ Skull: Cranium (8 bones: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, sphenoid, ethmoid); Facial bones (14, mandible is the only movable joint); Hyoid bone; Middle ear bones. ​ Cranium Markings: Temporal bone (external auditory meatus, zygomatic process, styloid process, mastoid process); Occipital bone (foramen magnum, occipital condyles). ​ Sphenoid bone: Butterfly-shaped, forms part of the cranium base and sides. Sella turcica. ​ Ethmoid bone: Between eye orbits, supports the nasal cavity. ​ Facial Bones: Mandible, maxilla, palatine, zygomatic. ​ Sinuses: Air-filled cavities that lighten the skull and modulate voice (frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal, maxillary). ​ Sutures: Immovable joints holding skull bones together (coronal, lambdoidal, squamosal). ​ Fontanels: Soft spots in infant skulls that allow for growth. ​ Vertebral Column: Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, coccyx. ​ Curves: Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral. ​ Function: Supports the head and thorax, protects the spinal cord, allows flexibility. ​ Vertebrae: Atlas (C1-nods yes), Axis (C2-rotates no); with vertebral foramen, body, lamina, spinous process, intervertebral discs. ​ Thoracic Cage: Sternum (manubrium, body, xiphoid process); Ribs (7 true pairs, 5 false pairs with 2 floating pairs); Thoracic vertebrae. ​ Important reference lines and angles: Midsternal line, midclavicular lines, costal margins, costal angle, Angle of Louis. ​ Appendicular Skeleton Details: ​ Shoulder Girdle: Scapulae, clavicles. ​ Upper Limbs: Humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges. ​ Pelvic Girdle: Coxal bones (ilium, ischium, pubis). ​ Functions include weight-bearing, lower limb attachment, and organ protection. ​ Lower Limbs: Femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges. ​ Foot Arches: Form instep. ​ Joints: ​ Types: Immovable, slightly movable, freely movable. ​ Freely Movable (Synovial) Joint Structure: Articular cartilage, joint capsule, synovial membrane, synovial fluid, cartilage, bursae, ligaments. ​ Joint Types by Movement: Hinge, ball-and-socket, pivot, saddle, gliding, condyloid. ​ Examples of Large Joints: Tibiofemoral (knee), glenohumeral (shoulder), humeroulnar (elbow), coxal (hip).  ​ Joint Movements: Flexion-extension, abduction-adduction, inversion-eversion, supination-pronation, circumduction. V. Muscular System ​ Types of Muscles: Skeletal, smooth, cardiac. ​ Skeletal Muscle Structure:Fascia: Connective tissue layers (epimysium, perimysium, endomysium). ​ Fascicles: Bundles of muscle fibers. ​ Tendon: Attaches muscle to bone. ​ Aponeurosis: Attaches muscle to muscle or bone. ​ Muscle Fiber: A muscle cell, contains myofibrils made of sarcomeres. ​ Sarcomere: The functional unit of contraction between two Z-lines. Contains thin (actin, troponin, tropomyosin) and thick (myosin) filaments. ​ Sliding Filament Mechanism: Myosin heads attach to actin, rotate, pulling actin filaments towards the center of the sarcomere which shortens the sarcomere and results in muscle contraction. ​ Calcium and ATP Role: Calcium is released from sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) upon stimulation, allowing actin and myosin to interact. ATP powers this process. When calcium returns to the SR, the muscle relaxes. ​ Somatic Motor Neurons: Stimulate skeletal muscles; motor units (a single nerve fiber and the muscle fibers it controls) are responsible for varying force of contraction with recruitment of more motor units. ​ Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): Site where the nerve fiber meets the muscle, includes a space between the neuron and the muscle. Acetylcholine (ACh) is released and stimulates muscle receptors resulting in an electrical impulse and muscle contraction. ​ Impairment at the NMJ: Myasthenia gravis, curare, neurotoxins (C. tetani (tetanus), C. botulinum (botulism, Botox)). ​ Muscle Response:Twitch: A single muscle contraction and relaxation. ​ Tetanus: Sustained muscle contraction from repeated stimuli. ​ Tonus: Normal state of partial muscle contraction. ​ Energy for Contraction: Creatinine phosphate metabolism, glycolysis (anaerobic), and aerobic metabolism. ​ Muscle Terminology:Origin: Muscle attachment that remains stationary ​ Insertion: Muscle attachment that moves. ​ Prime Mover: Muscle primarily responsible for a movement. ​ Synergist: Assists prime movers. ​ Antagonist: Opposes the action of prime movers. ​ Muscle Overuse/Underuse:Hypertrophy: Growth from overuse. ​ Atrophy: Wasting (disuse, denervation, senile). ​ Contracture: Abnormal fibrous formation that freezes a muscle in a flexed position. ​ Muscle Naming: Based on size, shape, fiber orientation, location, number of origins, origin/insertion, muscle action. ​ Major Muscles: Covered, including facial, chewing, neck, trunk, shoulder, arm, forearm, wrist, hand, fingers, thigh, leg, foot, as well as special muscles. Conclusion: This briefing document provides a comprehensive overview of fundamental concepts in anatomy and physiology, including body organization, basic chemistry, cell biology, skeletal and muscular systems. This information will be essential for understanding more complex biological functions and systems.