Sociology Study Guide PDF

I. How Society Maintains Stability Through Norms, Values, and Institutions ​ Norms → Social expectations that guide behavior. ​ Values → Cultural ideas about what is good or desirable. ​ Institutions → Structures like family, education, government, religion that maintain social order...

I. How Society Maintains Stability Through Norms, Values, and Institutions ​ Norms → Social expectations that guide behavior. ​ Values → Cultural ideas about what is good or desirable. ​ Institutions → Structures like family, education, government, religion that maintain social order. ​ Society stays stable because people follow norms, share values, and institutions regulate behavior. II. Macro-Sociology vs. Micro-Sociology ​ Macro-Sociology (big picture) → Studies large-scale social structures, like institutions, economies, or social classes. Example: How capitalism affects income inequality. ​ Micro-Sociology (small-scale) → Focuses on individuals or small groups, like interactions in families or friendships. Example: How people negotiate meaning in daily conversations. III. Social Research Scientific Method in Sociology 1.​ Define the Problem → Identify what you’re studying. 2.​ Review Literature → Read past studies on the topic. 3.​ Form a Hypothesis → Make a testable prediction. 4.​ Design the Study → Decide how you’ll research (experiment, survey, etc.). 5.​ Sampling → Choose a group to study. 6.​ Data Collection → Gather information. 7.​ Analyze Data → Look for patterns and relationships. 8.​ Draw Conclusions → Summarize findings and implications. Key Research Terms ​ Experiments → Manipulate variables to see effects. ​ Variable → Any characteristic that can change. ○​ Independent Variable → The one you change (cause). ○​ Dependent Variable → The one that changes because of the IV (effect). ​ Hypothesis → A testable prediction (Ex: More education leads to higher income). ​ Research Question → What guides your investigation (Ex: How does social media affect self-esteem?). Types of Research ​ Quantitative Research → Uses numbers and statistics (Ex: surveys). ​ Qualitative Research → Descriptive, non-numerical (Ex: interviews, case studies). ​ Ethnography → Studying a group in their natural setting (Ex: living among a tribe to observe their culture). ​ Surveys → Questionnaires to collect data. ​ Participant Observation → The researcher joins the group being studied (Ex: a sociologist works as a waiter to study restaurant culture). Sampling & Ethics ​ Sampling → Picking a subset of a population for study. ​ Ethics in Research → Ensures informed consent, confidentiality, and avoids harm. IV. Culture Key Concepts ​ Culture → Shared beliefs, values, norms, and material objects. ​ Language → A system of symbols for communication. ​ Ethnocentrism → Judging another culture using your own culture as the standard (Ex: Thinking chopsticks are “weird” just because you use forks). ​ Cultural Relativism → Understanding a culture from its own perspective instead of judging it. Characteristics of Culture 1.​ Learned → Taught from birth. 2.​ Shared → Common among members of a society. 3.​ Symbolic → Represented by symbols like flags or religious icons. 4.​ Dynamic → Changes over time. 5.​ Integrated → Different parts of culture influence each other (Ex: Technology affects how we communicate). Types of Culture ​ Material Culture → Physical objects like clothes, tools, or buildings. ​ Non-Material Culture → Ideas, values, beliefs, and norms. Symbols & Norms ​ Symbols → Objects or gestures with meaning (Ex: A peace sign means peace). ​ Norms → Social rules on behavior. Types:  1.​ Folkways → Everyday customs (Ex: Shaking hands). 2.​ Mores → Strongly held moral norms (Ex: Being honest). 3.​ Laws → Officially written norms (Ex: Speed limits). 4.​ Taboos → Forbidden behaviors (Ex: Incest). Subcultures vs. Countercultures ​ Dominant Culture → The mainstream culture in a society. ​ Subculture → A smaller group with distinct values (Ex: Gamers, Amish). ​ Counterculture → A group that opposes mainstream norms (Ex: Hippies, anarchists). Review Questions & Answers 1.​ What is the difference between macro-sociology and micro-sociology? ○​ Macro studies large structures like institutions, Micro focuses on small interactions. 2.​ How does ethnocentrism differ from cultural relativism? ○​ Ethnocentrism judges other cultures by one’s own standards. ○​ Cultural relativism understands a culture from its own perspective. 3.​ Compare qualitative and quantitative research methods. ○​ Quantitative = Numbers (surveys, stats). ○​ Qualitative = Descriptive (interviews, case studies). 4.​ What are the four types of norms? Provide examples. ○​ Folkways → Casual customs (Saying "hello"). ○​ Mores → Moral norms (Being truthful). ○​ Laws → Legal rules (No stealing). ○​ Taboos → Extreme prohibitions (Cannibalism). 5.​ What is Mead’s theory of self and how does it develop? ○​ George Herbert Mead → The self develops through social interaction. ○​ Stages of Self Development: 1.​ Preparatory Stage (Imitation, ages 0-2) 2.​ Play Stage (Role-playing, ages 2-6) 3.​ Game Stage (Understanding multiple roles, 6+). 6.​ Describe resocialization and give an example of a total institution. ○​ Resocialization → Learning new norms and behaviors. ○​ Total Institution → A place that completely changes individuals (Ex: Prison, military boot camp). 7.​ How does symbolic interactionism explain social behavior? ○​ Social behavior is shaped through symbols and meanings in interactions (Ex: A thumbs-up means approval). 8.​ Explain how gender roles are reinforced through socialization. ○​ Gender roles are learned through family, media, schools, and peers (Ex: Boys encouraged to play with trucks, girls with dolls).