Sociology Midterm Review PDF

WEEK 1: THINKING LIKE A SOCIOLOGIST What is Sociology? ​ Sociology is the systematic study of society and social behaviour. ○​ Systematic: using methods; producing contestable, verifiable knowledge, not common-sense knowledge. ​ It examines social structures, interactions...

WEEK 1: THINKING LIKE A SOCIOLOGIST What is Sociology? ​ Sociology is the systematic study of society and social behaviour. ○​ Systematic: using methods; producing contestable, verifiable knowledge, not common-sense knowledge. ​ It examines social structures, interactions, and institutions. ​ Sociologists analyze how social factors like class, gender, race, and institutions shape human experiences. ​ The field moves beyond common-sense knowledge and relies on empirical research and theory. ​ Sociologists notice social patterns ○​ social patterns are social actions, interactions, and exchanges that repeat themselves Why Study Sociology? ​ It helps us understand patterns in human behaviour. ​ Reveals the hidden structures of society (Bourdieu’s idea of ‘making the invisible visible’). ​ Encourages critical thinking about power, inequality, and social change. ​ Provides tools for analyzing social issues like crime, migration, inequality, and culture. Sociological Imagination (C. Wright Mills) ​ The sociological imagination is a concept developed by C. Wright Mills (1959) that describes the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and larger social forces. It helps us understand how personal problems are connected to broader societal issues. ​ Example of Sociological Imagination ○​ Student Loan Debt: Instead of blaming individuals for poor financial management, a sociologist examines how rising tuition costs, wage stagnation, and government policies contribute to student debt. Sociological Consciousness (Peter L. Berger) Debunking – Unmasking hidden social structures and questioning common-sense beliefs. ​ Example: The “American Dream” ignores systemic inequalities in wealth and education. Unrespectful – Studying the experiences of marginalized groups often overlooked by mainstream narratives. ​ Example: Examining prison populations to understand structural racism. Relativization – Seeing all beliefs and customs shaped by social and historical contexts rather than as absolute truths. ​ Example: Marriage customs vary widely across cultures and periods. Cosmopolitanism – Being open to different perspectives and critically engaging with multiple viewpoints. ​ Example: Understanding immigration not just as policy but through personal migrant experiences. Principal Founders ​ Karl Marx (1818-1883): modern capitalism and production, class conflict, labour experience ​ Max Weber (1864-1920): emergence of capitalism, bureaucracy, iron cage and rationalization ​ Émile Durkheim (1858-1917): solidarity, social integrity, individualism ​ Ibn Khaldum (1332–1406): Muqadimm: An Introduction to History: examining various types of societies and their histories, cultures, and economies, and social cohesion in them ​ W.E.B. Du Bois: Race and double consciousness. Often described as the first woman sociologist ​ Harriet Martineau: Gender and social reform. Black American sociologist of race, economics, and culture. WEEK 2: SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS What is Sociological Research? ​ Uses systematic methods to study social patterns.  ○​ Scales: Macro and Micro Sociology ​ Quantitative (numbers, statistics) or qualitative (interviews, observations). ​ It aims to be objective but acknowledges researcher bias (Weber’s ‘value-free’ sociology). Major Research Methods 1.​ Surveys – Questionnaires, large populations, quantitative. 2.​ Interviews – In-depth, qualitative. 3.​ Participant Observation – Immersive, ethnographic. 4.​ Experiments – Controlled environment, cause-and-effect. 5.​ Content Analysis – Studying media, texts. 6.​ Historical/Comparative Research – Examining societies over time. (Structural) Functionalism Origins and Key Concepts ​ Traced to Émile Durkheim. ​ Focuses on social cohesion, integration, normality, and solidarity. ​ Macro-level theory: Examines large-scale social structures and their functions. Core Ideas ​ Society functions like a living organism, where each part contributes to stability. ​ Institutions (education, healthcare, law, religion, family) each perform specific functions to maintain social order. ​ When one structure is disrupted, the system seeks to restore balance (homeostasis). ​ Encourages social norms and values that reinforce stability and continuity. Conflict Theory Origins and Key Concepts ​ Associated with Karl Marx and Max Weber. ​ Macro-level theory: Focuses on power, inequality, and competition. Core Ideas ​ Society is composed of groups competing for scarce resources (e.g., wealth, power, opportunities). ​ Emphasizes class struggle: the ruling class (bourgeoisie) maintains control over resources at the expense of the working class (proletariat). ​ Other power struggles: Gender, race, sexuality, disability, etc. ​ Institutions (e.g., government, education) reinforce existing power structures. ​ Social change occurs through conflict and resistance. Symbolic Interactionism Origins and Key Concepts ​ Micro-level theory: Focuses on individual interactions and meanings. ​ Concerned with small-group interactions and how people interpret daily life. Core Ideas ​ Society is created through symbols, language, and gestures. ​ Meaning is not fixed but negotiated through social interactions. ​ Everyday interactions matter, from texting to career choices. ​ Reality is socially constructed through human interpretation. Social Constructionism Core Ideas ​ Reality is not inherent but created through social processes. ​ Institutions, norms, and values are socially defined and maintained. ​ We categorize and label phenomena, which then shape perceptions. ​ Example: The concept of “race” is a social construct rather than a biological fact. ​ Useful for writing papers: Start with a claim, then use examples to support it. Feminist Theory Origins and Key Concepts ​ Challenges systematic discrimination against women and nonbinary individuals. ​ Intersectional approach: Recognizes how gender, race, class, and sexuality intersect. Core Ideas ​ “The personal is political”: Private life is shaped by larger societal structures. ​ Gendered experiences differ based on power relations. ​ Women and nonbinary individuals have distinct perspectives due to social positioning. ​ Major branches: ○​ Liberal feminism: Focuses on legal and policy reforms. ○​ Marxist feminism: Links gender oppression to capitalism. ○​ Radical feminism: Critiques patriarchy as a fundamental system of oppression. ○​ Ecofeminism: Connects gender and environmental justice. Standpoint Theory Key Concepts ​ Developed by Dorothy Smith. ​ Social position (e.g., gender, race, indigeneity) shapes what we perceive as knowledge. ​ Marginalized perspectives provide unique insights into power structures. Postmodernism Core Ideas ​ Challenges single objective truth and universal values. ​ Knowledge and truth are socially constructed.  ​ Emphasizes power, subjectivity, and relativism. Themes of Postmodernism 1.​ Deconstruction – Questioning dominant discourses and narratives. 2.​ Multiplicity & Hybridity – Accepting diverse perspectives, rejecting singular categories. 3.​ Reflexivity – Being critical of one’s own assumptions and biases. Indigenous Theory Core Ideas ​ Decolonization: Dismantling colonial power structures in society and academia. ​ Colonialism still exists in institutions and knowledge production. ​ Calls for Indigenous perspectives and methodologies in sociology. ​ Critiques Eurocentric biases in research and social theory. ​ Recognizes power dynamics in knowledge production. WEEK 3: CULTURE Culture Culture and Society ​ Culture is distinct from society: While society refers to a group of people living together, culture is the shared way of life, including values, norms, and practices. ​ Culture forms the goals, standards, and meaning that a society adheres to. Changing and Contested Nature of Culture ​ Not static: Culture is always evolving due to technological advancements, globalization, and social change.  ​ Constantly debated: Some people defend traditions, while others push for cultural transformation. ​ No universal agreement: Even members of the same cultural group may disagree on what defines their culture. Culture is Not Only Ethnic ​ Culture can exist at multiple levels: ○​ Global cultures: Sports fandoms, fashion trends. ○​ National cultures: Shared language, history, customs. ○​ Organizational cultures: Workplace environments, corporate values. ○​ Niche cultures: Biker communities, gaming subcultures. Culture: Core Elements ​ Behaviors, beliefs, knowledge, practices, values, and material objects shape a society’s way of life. ​ It influences how we think, act, and perceive reality. ​ Culture dictates what is considered good/evil, pure/impure, right/wrong. ​ It provides both tools and constraints for human interactions. Is Culture Only Rational? ​ Culture is not just logical and structured—it also includes rituals, myths, superstitions, and traditions that may not follow rational thought processes. Material and Non-Material Culture ​ Material Culture: Physical objects and artifacts (e.g., clothing, tools, architecture, technology). ​ Non-Material Culture: Beliefs, attitudes, values, and customs (e.g., religion, democracy, language). Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism Ethnocentrism ​ Judging another culture based on one’s own cultural norms. ​ Can be overt or subtle, often stemming from a lack of knowledge and power dynamics. ​ Examples: ○​ American exceptionalism: Viewing the U.S. as superior. ○​ Thinking one does not have an accent, while assuming others do. ○​ Historical Example: Potlatch ban (1885), residential schools. ○​ Contemporary Example: Dismissing Indigenous knowledge in agriculture. Cultural Relativism ​ The belief that a culture should be evaluated by its own standards, not another’s. ​ Requires open-mindedness and willingness to understand different perspectives. ​ Limitation: Some cultural practices reinforce oppression and inequality. Culture as an Instrument of Oppression ​ Some cultural elements serve to maintain power structures. ​ Examples: ○​ Rape Culture: Societal normalization of sexual violence. ○​ Eurocentrism: Framing non-Western cultures as inferior. ○​ Beauty standards: Preference for white features in media and fashion. Theoretical Perspectives on Culture ​ Functionalism: Culture maintains social stability and cohesion. ​ Conflict Theory: Culture reinforces social inequality and power struggles. ​ Feminism: Culture assigns gender roles and expectations. ​ Symbolic Interactionism: Culture is created and internalized through daily interactions.  ​ Postmodernism: Culture is fluid, and the distinction between reality and representation is blurred. ​ Indigenous Theory: Culture reflects the ongoing effects of settler colonialism. Culture and Power Conspicuous Consumption (Thorstein Veblen) ​ The display of wealth through consumption (late 19th-century concept). ​ Highlights the relationship between class and status. ​ Competitive consumption reinforces social hierarchies. Marxist View on Culture and Ideology ​ The ruling class creates and controls dominant ideology. ​ Ideology: A system of beliefs that justifies political and economic structures. ​ Dominant Ideology: Protects the interests of those in power, maintaining the status quo. Critical Race Theory and White Privilege ​ Culture perpetuates racial hierarchies. ​ White privilege: Unearned advantages based on race, often invisible to those who benefit from it. The Frankfurt School and Capitalist Culture ​ Advanced capitalism uses media and pop culture to maintain control. ​ False needs: Capitalism replaces human creativity and freedom with consumerism. ​ Infinite choice illusion: Consumer “freedom” is shaped by corporate interests. Postmodernism and Culture Postmodernism ​ Challenges grand narratives and universal truths. ​ Emphasizes fragmentation, uncertainty, and media influence. ​ Jean Baudrillard’s Hyperreality: The line between reality and representation is blurred. ○​ Example: Social media influencers constructing artificial lifestyles. The Cultural Effects of Colonialism Settler Colonialism ​ Erodes Indigenous cultures, sovereignty, and land rights. ​ Settler institutions suppress Indigenous knowledge and practices. ​ Colonial narratives shape historical memory. Colonial Memory (Logan, 2023) ​ Indigenous peoples depicted as savage or uncivilized. ​ Resistance labeled as rebellion. ​ Canadian history marginalizes Indigenous presence and resistance. ​ Cultural artifacts taken from Indigenous communities and displayed in museums. ​ Commodification of Indigenous identity for profit. Forms of Culture Dominant Culture ​ The culture that holds political and economic power and influences societal norms. Subculture ​ A group within society that has distinct beliefs or practices but does not oppose dominant culture.  ​ Examples: Ethnic communities, deaf culture, sports fandoms. Counterculture ​ Groups that actively reject and challenge dominant culture. ​ Examples: Anti-establishment movements, punk subculture. Popular Culture ​ Culture of the masses, including music, movies, social media. ​ Mass Culture: Media-driven, standardized commercial culture. High Culture ​ Associated with intellectualism, prestige, and the elite. ​ Example: Classical music, fine art, opera. ​ Pierre Bourdieu: Cultural capital marks class status. ○​ High culture is learned and reinforced through socialization. Cultural Capital (Bourdieu) ​ A set of knowledge, skills, and tastes that enhance social mobility. ​ Those born into privilege have early exposure to elite cultural practices. ​ Reinforces class divisions. WEEK 4: SOCIALIZATION Socialization Social Individuals ​ We are constantly surrounded and influenced by others, both real and imagined. ​ We accept, conform, resist, and interact with societal norms and expectations.  ​ Social roles can be adopted or rejected, shaping our identity and interactions. What is Socialization? ​ A lifelong learning process that enables individuals to become active and capable members of society. ​ Involves learning and internalizing norms, values, beliefs, and ideologies. ​ Develops a sense of self in relation to others and broader social structures. Agents of Socialization ​ People, groups, or institutions that influence our social development. ​ Examples: Family, school, media, peer groups, workplace, religion, sports teams, gaming spaces, online communities (e.g., subreddits). Levels of Socialization ​ Micro-level: Small-scale interactions (e.g., friend groups, families). ​ Macro-level: Large-scale societal influences (e.g., national education policies, media trends). ​ Interaction between micro and macro: They can reinforce each other or clash, sometimes leading to contradictions (e.g., vaping as a rebellious youth trend while being regulated at the societal level). Primary Socialization ​ The first stage of socialization, occurring in early childhood within the family. ​ Caregivers instill basic values, norms, and identity. ​ Happens through imitation, role-taking, and encouragement (both explicitly and implicitly). Secondary Socialization ​ Socialization that occurs outside of family settings. ​ Influenced by peer groups, educational institutions, media, and authority figures. Generations and Socialization ​ Generational labels are often used to explain social issues and change, but they are socially constructed.  ​ Generational cohorts form in times of rapid historical, economic, or political change. ​ A generation is not just about birth years—it’s defined by shared experiences and cultural shifts. ​ Peer groups influence identity through hobbies, fashion, media consumption, and social belonging. Social Media and Socialization ​ Online self-presentation shapes identity and social status. ​ Platforms like TikTok create high-visibility social spaces, fostering a celebrity-like culture. ​ Cultural literacy is required to navigate digital interactions and trends. Mechanisms of Socialization Anticipatory Socialization ​ Preparing for future roles and responsibilities by adopting relevant values and behaviors. ​ Example: A student learning professional etiquette before entering the workforce. Resocialization ​ A process involving significant changes in identity and behavior. ​ Can be voluntary or involuntary. ​ Example: Transitioning to a new career or joining a religious group. Total Institutions (Erving Goffman) ​ Extreme resocialization occurs in total institutions where individuals are isolated and controlled. ​ Example: Prisons, military boot camps, psychiatric hospitals. ​ These institutions erase previous identities and instill new roles and behaviors. Theoretical Perspectives on Socialization Functionalism and Socialization ​ Socialization maintains stability and order by transmitting norms and values. ​ Institutions like schools, families, and workplaces reinforce social cohesion. ​ Unidirectional process: Individuals are passive receivers of social expectations. Conflict Theory and Socialization  ​ Socialization perpetuates social inequalities. ​ Class-based socialization makes social mobility difficult. ​ Wealthier individuals have greater access to diverse learning opportunities and cultural exposure. Pierre Bourdieu: Class and Socialization ​ Class influences cultural preferences, tastes, and choices. ​ Habitus: Deeply ingrained social habits, gestures, and ways of thinking that shape class identity. ​ Social reproduction: The upper class maintains its status by transmitting cultural knowledge and privileges to future generations. Paul Willis: Learning to Labour (Marxist Perspective) ​ Ethnographic study of working-class students in England (1970s). ​ Observed that working-class kids were socialized to remain in the working class. ​ Counter-School Culture: Rebellion against school norms (bad behavior, skipping class) reinforced their working-class trajectory. ​ Schools and institutions reinforce social stratification rather than offering mobility. Symbolic Interactionism and Socialization ​ Socialization is an active process where individuals negotiate their roles. ​ People internalize and interpret norms through interactions. ​ Example: A child learning polite behavior by observing how adults react to their actions. Feminism and Socialization ​ Gender socialization reinforces inequalities and expectations. ​ Social institutions shape gender roles and scripts from early childhood. ​ Example: Toys marketed differently for boys and girls reinforce societal expectations. Indigenous Theory and Socialization ​ Settler colonialism influences socialization by imposing Western cultural norms and values. ​ Indigenous resistance includes revitalizing traditional knowledge, language, and practices. WEEK 6: DEVIANCE, LAW, AND CRIME Big Questions ​ What defines an act as deviant? ​ What constitutes a crime, and what does that entail? ​ What social institutions respond to deviance and crime, and what responses do they generate? Dominant Discourses on Crime and Deviance ​ Historically influenced by religion, psychology, biology, and functionalism. ○​ 19th-century criminology viewed crime as an inherent trait in individuals. ​ Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909): ○​ Italian criminologist who argued that criminals could be identified by physical traits (low foreheads, prominent jaws, protruding ears). ○​ Introduced the idea that crime was biologically determined. ​ Crime as an Object: ○​ Criminology traditionally views crime as a characteristic within individuals. ○​ Modern sociology considers crime and deviance as socially constructed. ○​ Many criminology departments still use positivist approaches to study crime. Deviance ​ Any behavior that strays from commonly accepted societal norms. ​ Deviance does not always mean something bad, wrong, or inferior. ​ Deviance is relative—it varies across time, place, and cultural context. ​ Power and deviance: ○​ What is considered deviant depends on those making the rules rather than those being labeled as deviant. ○​ Example: Who decides what is labeled as a crime, and whose interests does it serve? ​ Deviance is socially constructed: ○​ No act is inherently deviant; societal forces define deviance. ○​ Sociologists analyze how laws and norms are created and enforced. “Deviance is not a quality of the act the person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an ‘offender.’” – Howard Becker Social Responses to Deviance Moral Panic ​ Social or collective controversy provoking strong fear and reactions. ​ Often sensationalized by media. ​ Example: Moral panics over video games and youth violence. Moral Entrepreneurs ​ Individuals or groups who create and enforce norms about what is deviant. ​ Can exist on both sides of social issues: ○​ Pro-life vs. pro-choice movements. ○​ Gun control vs. pro-gun advocacy. ○​ Political figures like Donald Trump shaping narratives about crime and immigration. Crime and Law ​ Crime is the violation of codified criminal laws. ​ Many believe law is beyond human influence, but laws are simply social norms codified and enforced by authorities. ​ Critical questions: ○​ Which norms become laws, and why? ○​ Who benefits from these laws? 'Illegal' Migration ​ What makes someone “illegal”? Laws and policies determine migration status. ​ Migration control as a form of legal exclusion. ​ Effects of irregular migration policies (Echeverría, 2020): ○​ Criminalization of migrants. ○​ Increased exploitation and marginalization. Migrant Smuggling vs. Human Trafficking ​ Often conflated to justify strict migration policies. ​ Key difference: ○​ Smuggling is voluntary. ○​ Human trafficking is forced and exploitative. ​ Overlap exists, but they are distinct legal and social issues. Social Control and Surveillance ​ Regulation is required to maintain social order. ​ Social control exists in both traditional and modern societies. ​ Modern surveillance is more sophisticated: ○​ How does control operate in contemporary society? ○​ What mechanisms enforce conformity? Michel Foucault: Discipline and Surveillance ​ Modern power regulates bodies, populations, and knowledge. ​ Governmentality: The state exercises control by encouraging self-regulation. ​ Disciplinary Society: ○​ Individuals are controlled through bodily discipline (e.g., military, schools). ○​ Prisons, schools, and hospitals function as institutions of discipline. The Panopticon (Jeremy Bentham & Foucault) ​ A prison model where inmates never know when they are being watched. ​ Leads to self-surveillance and self-regulation. ​ Foucault’s argument: ○​ Modern society operates like a panopticon—people behave due to fear of being watched. ○​ Example: CCTV cameras, social media monitoring, workplace surveillance. Carceral Spaces and Social Control Carceral Turn ​ Understanding prisons as part of a larger carceral system (Turner & Whyte, 2022). ​ Beyond prisons: ○​ Ghettos, immigration detention centers, asylum institutions, repatriation camps. ​ Angela Davis (1998): ○​ Prison-industrial complex: Prisons serve capitalist interests. Carceral Circuits ​ Bodies move from one controlled space to another: ○​ Example: Poor, racialized individuals moving from ghettos to prisons. ○​ Punitive methods circulate between institutions. Theories on Crime and Deviance Functionalism (Émile Durkheim) ​ Crime is inevitable and necessary for society. ​ Regulation, integration, and social change all involve deviance. ​ Anomie: A state of normlessness leading to social instability. ​ Law expresses the collective conscience of a society. Symbolic Interactionism (Howard Becker) ​ Deviance is learned behavior. ​ Example: Smoking marijuana—learning how to use, enjoy, and connect effects to social experiences. ​ Labeling Theory: ○​ People become deviant when labeled as such. ○​ Self-fulfilling prophecy—once labeled, individuals internalize deviant identity. Conflict Theory ​ Crime is linked to social inequality. ​ Laws protect the ruling class and punish marginalized groups. ​ Race, class, and wealth determine criminalization. ​ Critical Race Theory: ○​ Challenges the neutrality of law. ○​ Law reinforces racial inequalities and power structures. Indigenous Theory and Law ​ Settler colonialism as a structure, not an event. ​ The legal system reinforces settler dominance and Indigenous dispossession. ​ Settler law is structured to uphold capitalism, courts, and state power. Urban Crime and Marginalization: Parisian Banlieues (Amy Siciliano, 2007) ​ Racialized youth excluded from mainstream French society. ​ Social fragmentation and urban inequality. ​ Marginalized groups experience structural violence and economic precarity. EXAM PRACTICE QUESTIONS Multiple Choice 1.​ Which theory views crime as a socially constructed concept that benefits those in power? ○​ a) Functionalism ○​ b) Symbolic Interactionism ○​ c) Conflict Theory (Correct Answer) ○​ d) Postmodernism 2.​ Which sociologist introduced the concept of ‘cultural capital’? ○​ a) Karl Marx ○​ b) Emile Durkheim ○​ c) Pierre Bourdieu (Correct Answer) ○​ d) Michel Foucault 3.​ Which sociologist introduced the concept of ‘double consciousness’? ○​ a) Karl Marx ○​ b) W.E.B. Du Bois (Correct Answer) ○​ c) Emile Durkheim ○​ d) Max Weber 4.​ According to C. Wright Mills, the sociological imagination allows individuals to... ○​ a) Understand personal experiences in relation to larger social structures (Correct Answer) ○​ b) Predict the future of societal changes ○​ c) Ignore historical influences on their lives ○​ d) Focus solely on personal troubles 5.​ What is the main focus of symbolic interactionism? ○​ a) The role of economic forces in shaping social life ○​ b) The significance of large-scale social structures ○​ c) The meanings and interpretations individuals give to social interactions (Correct Answer) ○​ d) The function of crime in society 6.​ Which theory challenges the idea of objective truth and universal values? ○​ a) Functionalism ○​ b) Postmodernism (Correct Answer) ○​ c) Conflict theory ○​ d) Feminist theory 7.​ According to Michel Foucault, the ‘panopticon’ is a model for... ○​ a) The criminal justice system ○​ b) Disciplinary power and self-surveillance (Correct Answer) ○​ c) Social mobility ○​ d) The traditional family structure  True/False Questions 6.​ Deviance is always negative and harmful to society. ○​ False. Deviance is socially constructed and varies across time and culture. Some deviance can challenge unjust laws or social norms. 7.​ Pierre Bourdieu argued that cultural capital is evenly distributed across all social classes. ○​ False. Bourdieu showed that cultural capital is unequally distributed and reinforces class distinctions. 8.​ The ‘looking-glass self’ suggests that individuals shape their identity based on how they believe others perceive them. ○​ True. Cooley's theory emphasizes social interactions in identity formation. 9.​ Moral panics often arise without any real societal concerns. ○​ False. While moral panics are exaggerated, they usually stem from underlying social anxieties. 10.​Indigenous theory critiques the assumption that settler colonialism is a historical event rather than an ongoing structure. ​ True. Indigenous theorists argue that colonial structures persist in legal, political, and social systems. Short Answer Q: Explain the concept of ‘Looking-Glass Self’ and its importance in socialization. A: Charles Cooley’s ‘Looking-Glass Self’ suggests that our self-identity is shaped by how we think others perceive us. This occurs in three stages: 1.​ We imagine how we appear to others. 2.​ We interpret their reactions. 3.​ We develop feelings about ourselves based on these perceptions. This concept highlights the role of social interactions in shaping self-concept. Q: What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative research methods in sociology? ​ Qualitative research focuses on in-depth understanding through interviews, observations, and case studies. Quantitative research relies on numerical data and statistics to identify patterns. Q: Explain the concept of ‘conspicuous consumption’ and its relation to social class. ​ Thorstein Veblen’s conspicuous consumption refers to spending on luxury goods to display wealth and status. It reinforces class distinctions, as the upper class differentiates itself from lower classes through material consumption. Q: How does ‘critical race theory’ challenge traditional views of law and power? ​ Critical race theory (CRT) argues that law is not neutral but reinforces racial inequalities. CRT critiques the idea that the law is colorblind and instead shows how systemic racism is embedded in legal and social institutions. Long Answer Q: How does Foucault’s concept of ‘disciplinary society’ explain modern surveillance? A: Michel Foucault argued that modern societies use disciplinary power to regulate individuals. His concept of the Panopticon (a prison where inmates self-regulate due to constant surveillance) illustrates how power operates invisibly. Today, surveillance extends beyond prisons to schools, workplaces, social media, and policing, ensuring people regulate their behavior without direct coercion. Q: Compare and contrast functionalism and conflict theory’s perspectives on crime. ​ Functionalism (Durkheim) views crime as a necessary function in society, helping regulate norms and social change. Too much crime, however, creates instability (anomie). ​ Conflict theory (Marx, Weber) sees crime as a result of social inequality and power struggles. Laws protect the interests of the powerful while criminalizing marginalized groups. Unlike functionalism, conflict theory argues that crime is a symptom of systemic inequality rather than a natural part of society. Q: Discuss the role of socialization in maintaining and challenging societal norms. ​ Socialization transmits cultural values and norms through institutions like family, education, media, and peer groups. ​ Primary socialization (early childhood) instills basic norms, while secondary socialization (later life) shapes social roles.  ​ Socialization can reinforce power structures (e.g., class reproduction through education), but it also enables resistance and social change (e.g., feminist and civil rights movements challenging dominant ideologies). Q: How does Michel Foucault’s concept of ‘governmentality’ explain modern surveillance? ​ Foucault’s governmentality refers to how the state exercises power by encouraging individuals to self-regulate. Unlike earlier forms of direct coercion, modern societies govern through institutions, norms, and surveillance. ​ The panopticon metaphor illustrates how people internalize surveillance, leading to self-discipline. Today, this can be seen in social media monitoring, workplace surveillance, and digital data collection.