Songhay Empire PDF

THE SONGHAY EMPIRE SONGHAY FOUNDATIONS RIVER NIGER ​ For centuries it was the heartland of political systems in west africa ​ Famous cities rose along it like Timbuktu and Djenne ○​ Prospered with river trade and commerce linking west and north africa to the islamic worl...

THE SONGHAY EMPIRE SONGHAY FOUNDATIONS RIVER NIGER ​ For centuries it was the heartland of political systems in west africa ​ Famous cities rose along it like Timbuktu and Djenne ○​ Prospered with river trade and commerce linking west and north africa to the islamic world ​ Many migrated from the fallen Ghanaian empire to the Niger ​ Songhay was the last of the powerful Niger bend empires GHANA EMPIRE ​ Rose into now mauritania in the 10th century, flourishing until its collapse in 1076-1077 due to invasions by Almoravid Berbers ​ Ghanaian king had not converted to Islam, meanwhile Almoravids led a Jihad across North Africa ​ Sonike people inhabited it after migrating east of Niger where they termed the Mali empire MALI EMPIRE ​ It grew to be a powerful West African empire, flourishing over two centuries due to trans-Saharan gold trade ​ Home to Mande people led by Mansa Musa ​ Centre was in the Upper Niger Valley, around Djenne ○​ Power began to shift further east towards Gao → became the capital ​ Malians abandoned Timbuktu when Tuaregs invaded ○​ Retreat was part of the issues which faced Mali from 1400 as it faced attacks from the Tuareg, Mossi and Songhay people ○​ Mali was at its peak with 36 Sultans (provincial rulers) and was a large, complex state MILITARY POWERS EFFECT ON POLITICS ​ Violence bred resentment, command was split between north and south  ​ Resentment increased so people turned to other political parties which rose in 15th century SONGHAY ​ Askias expanded on Sonike traditions of kingship which characterised Ghana and Mali empires ​ Under Askias, the role of Islamic scholars became more central to articulation of political and religious power in West Africa ​ History of Songhay and its successors can be found in many 1000s of islamic manuscripts from Timbuktu and surroundings GAO AND KUKYIA ​ Gao’s power within Songhay rose in the 10th century due to its role in the trans-Saharan trade ​ In Gao, they traded Saharan salt for wax, iron goods and cloth which was made further South along the river Niger in Kukyia ISLAM ​ Growing presence of Islamic traders in Gao led political power there from Kukyia in the 10th century ​ Separate towns were established for muslims and non-muslims either side of the Niger→ shaped urban and religious architecture in Djenne and Gao ​ Growing importance of Islam and relationship with trade meant that by 1068, Gao would only be ruled by a Muslim ○​ Orthodoxy of rules was thin so Islamic practice didn’t expand past rulers TRADE (MANSAS OF MALI) ​ Cotton was traded from Gao to the heartland of Mali, by 1300 the region of Gao around Niger was a source of agriculture ​ Political dependence of Mali remained important around the 14th century when Mali rose due to gold reserves and Musa’s pilgrimages ​ Mali’s power was structured around the gold trade ○​ It was the centrality of this trade that allowed the Musas to develop great wealth and status DJENNE (MUSAS OF MALI) ​ The meeting point for gold trade from forest region and salt trade from Saharan mine of Taghaza MANSA MUSA ​ 1321 - he was the emperor of Mali and went on a pilgrimage to Mecca ○​ So much gold left in Cairo → caused huge inflation ​ 80 years later he was depicted with gold in his hands ​ Cosmopolitan ruler with international connections → slaves ​ Musas party on the pilgrimage was 60,000 soldiers and 500 slaves, each bearing pure gold (2kg) ​ Reign of Musa was a high point in Mali, ordered construction of a mosque in Gao and palace in Timbuktu upon his return ​ However, a series of reverses afflicted Mali and Songhay began showing signs of independence by 1400 ○​ Further aided by the growing raids from Tuareg Nomads who finally seized control of Timbuktu in 1433-1434 EARLY SONNIS ​ 14th century - rise in importance of Sonni title, recognised as title holders of Gao ​ Early 1400s - Sonni Muhammed Da’o led an expedition against Mali and returned with prisoners ○​ Testament to weakness of Mali → led to incorporation of tributaries people ​ Policy of westward expansion was continued by Sonni Ali and Sovleyman Dam who attacked and destroyed the rich Sonike town of Mema ​ Decline in Mali was a major feature of political life in Sahelian region of West Africa in the 15th century ​ Growing connections to North Africa through the gold trade gave rise to more powerful states in the region ○​ Source of instability yet opportunity for Sonnis TRANS SAHARAN TRADE DESERT MAFIA ​ Robbers and highwaymen  ​ Authority was concerned with moral and legal precepts but not with their neighbours lives ​ Robbers were converted into protectors, for a price ​ It was better to put pens fate in their hands rather than to fall into their hands LACK OF WATER ​ Thrust proved a huge problem for people crossing ​ In bad years, wind dried out water in goats skin ○​ A camels throat had to be cut and its stomach and water removed ​ People began digging well to try and conserve water ​ Thirst would kill you → lose consciousness, lost and alone PROBLEM OF ORGANISATION / KNOWLEDGE ​ In a caravan, a shopkeeper's mindset was needed ​ Nomads provided knowledge of where to pitch tents ​ Watch belongings overnight (theft) and beware bites from a serpent ​ Stories of demons that would mislead you and make you lost COST AND KEEPING PEACE ​ Camels were well trained, halted when told etc. ​ Intemperance of city dwellers cost them, harsh conditions ​ Men would often get lost RISE OF SONGHAY - FACTORS LEADERSHIP OF SONNI ALI ​ “Empire builder” and “always the conqueror, never conquered” ​ Organised the Sorko boatmen in a professional way ○​ Secured borders from Mossi, pushed back Fulani ​ Used same methods as Romans: study people they defeated, adopt many of their laws, customs, legends and myths ​ Commanding loyalty, respect, fear and obedience, he created an empire that surpassed Ghana and Mali ​ They sacked Timbuktu and killed many Muslim leaders showing he wouldn’t tolerate insults to the Songhay people ​ The took advantage of the high water season to help military success  ​ He married the Queen Mother of Djenne after capturing it, to unite the royal clans ​ They heard the Mossi ruler was on his way to attack, he abandoned the canal project and never returned ​ Known for his efficient rule of domains ​ Made leading families in 8 provinces governors after their loyalty ​ In 1492 he drowned in a siege, it was clear the stability of the empire depended on its leader SONNI ALI’S PREDECESSORS ​ Sonni Soulayman Dama died in 1464 ​ Soad argues the expansion of the empire started under the predecessor and was completed by Askia Muhammed who promised to fill the vacuum of political notions after the decline of Mali GEOGRAPHY ​ River navy used in military campaigns against territories bordering Niger ​ Djenne was protected by natural defence on floodplains and rivers ○​ Flooded in the wet season and a swamp in the city → difficult for war canoes over ​ Entire city and some cattle / crops were encircled by a well WEAKNESS OF NEIGHBOURING KINGDOMS ​ Akil, leader of Timbuktu sent raiders after each collection to rape, pillage and kill - he demanded tribute and people paid again ​ Omar and religious leaders sent a message to Sonni Ali asking for liberation and information about strengths of Timbutu’s arsenal ​ Sonni Ali invaded, many (including Omar) fled to Walata ○​ COUNTER: military couldn’t get past walls of Djenne on their 7 year siege ADMINISTRATION ​ To prevent Portuguese forming an alliance with Mandinka he granted Europeans trade concessions on the coast ​ He implemented a range of significant political / administrative developments ​ Sonni Ali travelled around the 8 provinces to gain support ​ Central administration was run from Gao → imperial administrative officers, council of military leaders and corps of dignitaries ​ Growth in diversity of titles MILITARY SUCCESS / USE OF CAVALRY ​ Equestrian ethos meant they didn’t adopt firearms ○​ 1591 - warriors threw captured Moroccan muskets into the Niger ​ Army made of elite cavalry and infantry, most nobles / captives and slaves ​ Foot soldiers captured best men from defeated armies, armed with spears, arrows and leather / copper shields → fast, tough cavalry with iron breast plates ○​ 30,000 infantry and 10,000 horsemen ​ Large army approached Timbuktu, 100s of camels and horses, soldiers with padded armour, spears, arrows and infantrymen in full armour with poisoned arrows ○​ 1469 - Timbuktu was taken with fight → milestone ​ Djenne in 1473, approached with a fleet of 400 soldiers ​ His cavalry were not effective in dense vegetation at the mercy of Malian arches → the more he conquered, the more to defend SONNI ALI GENERAL ​ “Great strength… firm body” ​ “Oppressor… shedder of blood” ​ “Only Allah knows the number” → killed scholars and innocents ​ Reeked destruction on “servants of Allah” (Muslims) CONQUESTS ​ Seized Djenne and kept possession for 1 year - he allowed the “Dirama Koy” (government of Dirma) to enter after many reprisals ​ Its 600 km southeast of Timbuktu and 300 km southeast of Gao ​ Captured Walata ​ Conquered Timbuktu and lands of Kunta and tried to seize lands of Borgu but failed ​ Played a major role in diffusion of Islam ​ Last military expedition was against Eurma ISLAMIC JURISTS ​ He carried out appalling actions in Timbuktu  ​ When Akillu heard of the coming of Sonni Ali, he bought 1000 camels to carry the jurists ​ Sonni Ali slaughtered those who remained from Sonkare people or Timbuktu and humiliated them CHARACTER, RELIGION AND RULING ​ Played with his religion, leaving prayers postponed ​ Sometimes repeatedly mentioned names of prayers ​ Ordered people to be killed for no reason except status, later he would regret it so the servants knew not to kill them so later when Sonni Ali regretted it, they could say they had been “preserved” and Sonni Ali became very happy ○​ Inhumane ASKIA MOHAMMED MOHAMMED TOURE GENERAL ​ Army commander, devout Muslim and rejected Sonni Ali’s brutality ​ Taught Sonni Baru and after two bloody battles in 1493, crowned King KING ​ Chose ‘Askia’ as his rank and was known as Muhammed the Great ​ Line of succession continued → very specific blood group in power ​ New monarchy had absolute power ​ Sat on a raised platform surrounded by 700 eunuchs ​ Built the largest state, Songhay was the size of Europe ​ He expanded control beyond what had been conquered by Sonni Ali ○​ Northern to salt plains of Taghaza (significant caravan route) ○​ Westwards towards former territories of the Mali empire ○​ Eastern to the Tuareg kingdom of Agadez ​ Relations with Tuareg and Sanhaja were restored, giving them virtual control of salt and copper mining MILITARY EXPEDITIONS ​ Borgu in 1505-1506 ​ 1515 - passing through Hausa States of Zonia and Kano ​ Raids for booty / treasure, not conquest  ​ ½ of the subjects went into slavery in Katsina, Gobir and Zaria ​ Kano withheld long enough to make deals ​ Slaves and captured people were used as soldiers ​ Empire was divided into two separate armies (west and east) ​ Army was built to full time and professional with cavalry ○​ Expert calvary, war canoes, protective armour, iron tipped weapons ​ Exported gold, sales and agricultural produce for cloth, horses and salt ​ Regional outcasts, basing strength on horse and food, defied central authority and took advantage the borders ISLAM ​ Ancestors were muslim ○​ Replaced native songhays with Arab muslim immigrants as government officials ​ 1496 - hajj to mecca → entourage of 1000 infantry and 500 cavalry ​ Carried 300,000 gold pieces ○​ Pilgrimage enabled him to establish diplomatic relations in Gao and Mecca JIHADS ​ Mossi in 1498 - 1000s captured and children captured and raised Muslim ​ Hausa states captured except for Kano (1 year) and king could keep his throne and Askia Muhammed gave one of his daughters as a wife ​ Tuaregs and Taghaza were driven into the desert ○​ Secured recognition of sovereignty without campaigning ​ Improved learning centres, restoring uni of Sonkare in Timbuktu ​ Muslim scholars from Egypt and Morocco were requested to teach ○​ 25,000 students, 180 koranic schools built in Timbuktu (20,000 pupils) SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT ​ Opened ranks of government service with high office - based on intellect ​ Efficient bureaucracy → tax collectors and lawyers ​ Appointed officials to serve as ministers of treasury, army, navy and farming ○​ Canoes built to enhance agriculture ​ Divided kingdom into regions, central administration - close family ​ Djenne controlled internal commerce, Gao and Timbuktu were links to other economic centres → failed to achieve internal stability ○​ Repeat conflict between royals and military nobility  ​ In 1529 (after power struggle) Musa demanded that it be his, without support Muhammed gave in → next askia and killed brothers ​ Many fled and killing continued until 1531, brother killed Askia Musa ​ Upon return, Muhammed Bonkama (cousin) was already king ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE ASKIAS RELIGION ​ Sonni Ali was remembered as a powerful magician - he blended Islam with traditional African religion, which focused on nature spirits and sacred animals ○​ Practices including worshipping Gods like Harke Oikko and Dongo ​ After Sonni Ali’s death, Askia Muhammed led a Jihad to convert animists to Islam, significantly increasing influence in urban areas and imperial government ​ Secular power involved governance, revenue collection and defense (politics guide) ​ Religious authenticity claimed to guide lives and often influence but not dictate government policy → largely independent ​ Rulers were expected to act justly and failure to do so could justify revolt → therefore Askias had to have religious support to avoid damnation ​ Population in rest were largely not Songhay and neighbours were not muslims like Dogan and Mossi ○​ Contributed to a sense of belonging to a literate group, able to offer effective prayer or curse and discarse on neology and law ​ Askia Muhammed and successors cultivated relations with the religious estate ​ Gifts such as slaves, cattle, land, cloth and exemptions from state obligations and taxes further suggest positive relations ​ Some Askias showed respect for Islam by recognising their power of intercession and sanctity of mosques etc. yet Askia Musa didn’t respect this ​ Islamic scholars didn’t directly sway state policy but exercised a subtle / persuasive influence → spiritual advice ​ Muslim clerics supplied the ideological support and legal framework necessary for governing a large and diverse territory ​ In 1498-1499, Askia Muhammed appointed Foudiya as Qadi of Djenne - he destroyed pagan temples and house and marked the introduction of Islam in Djenne ​ Askia Muhammed used Islam to reinforce authority, unite empire and reutilise the trans-Saharan trade LEARNING ​ Askia Muhammed restored the University of Sankore in Timbuktu, scholars from Morocco and Egypt were recruited to teach the 25,000 students ​ Timbuktu had 180 Koranic schools with 20,000+ pupils ​ Askia Muhammed's interest in astronomy led to a flourish in Gao. By 1500, Djenne had been surpassed by Timbuktu as a learning centre ​ Sonkare mosque built in 1300 became a Madrasa (Islamic uni) with the largest collection of books in Africa since the library of Alexandria ○​ 400,000 - 700,000 manuscripts ​ 1326 - Mansa Musa ordered the construction of the great mosque ​ Cissoko (1064) argued that the city’s recognition was due to institutions of knowledge established by scholars. By 16th century, Timbuktu was known as a “city of scholars” with autonomous leadership ​ Wealthy families had greater access to learning and entry to legal and admin ​ Ahmed Baba wrote 70 works in Arabic and was deported to Morocco after the Songhay invasion in 1591 which lost Timbuktu its name as centre for learning ○​ Towns like Walata and Katsina flourished as Timbuktu declined JUSTICE ​ Criminal injustice was blamed mostly on Islamic principles ​ Local qadis had the responsibility to maintain order by following Sharia law under Islamic denominations ​ Kings usually didn’t judge the defendant, but sometimes would ​ Results of a trial were announced by a “town crier” → punishment for trivial crimes was usually removal of possession or imprisonment ​ Qadis worked at a local level and were positioned in important trading centres like Timbuktu and Djenne ○​ Were appointed by King and dealt with misdemeanours, had power to pardon crimes or offer refuge ​ Jurists mainly represented the academic community →professors often took administrative positions and many aspired to Qadis ADMINISTRATION ​ Songhay was split into 8 regions with provincial governors recognising Sonni Ali ○​ Sonni Ali travelled around regularly and had residences in Kukya, Kabara and Dirma ​ Central administration was in Gao → where imperial offices located  ​ All rulers but one were descendants of Askia Muhammed and all powerful positions were filled by brothers etc. → specific bloodline of rulers ​ King was approached in prostere position and sat on a raised platform with 700 eunuchs ​ Askia Muhammed had a strong government → rank / position was based on scholarship and merit ○​ Established efficient bureaucracy to tax collect and administer justice etc. ○​ Appointed officials to treasury, navy, army and agriculture ​ Most important new role was Chancellor → diplomatic corresponder ​ Askia Muhammed demanded new canals to be built to enhance agriculture ○​ Introduced an inspector for each province ​ Taxes came from times of harvest, livestock and business ​ At Taghaza salt mines, one official for taxes and other for imports ​ BALAMA = organised Ghana empire, military commander for unrest ​ HI - KOI = high ranking military officer, responsible for river traffic, admiral of fleet of river boats that collected Sonni Ali’s troops to attack Timbuktu and Djenne ​ KANFARI = second only to Askia, created by Askia Muhammed and given to his brother, 1579 he was in charge of all western provinces → threat? ​ Government divided into urban districts with at least 35 cities ​ Timbuktu and Djenne were semi-autonomous governments ​ Government considered to have a ‘castle system’, emperor →family → imperial authority → social elite → intellectual elite ​ Most of the ruling class had multiple wives so 100s of children were burnt → when older brothers died, youngers inherited their goods and wives ECONOMY ​ Djenne had 8 gates, surrounded by a network of streams and canals, 2 storey buildings (some with drainage systems). Population = 70,000 ​ Main source of government income was tributes produced from trade tax ○​ Gold, kola nuts and slaves were traded for salt, cloth and horses ​ Trade expanded: gold exports increased and so did kola nuts and slaves ​ Large, noble estates were worked by servile labour that fished, animal raising for milk, wheat, skins ​ Songhay, like Mali, store state enterprise in production and trade as well as military operations and civil government ​ Western provinces had vast elements of fertile land enriched yearly by silk from the Niger river → provided interlinking for commercial centres of Timbuktu and Djenne which were pivotal in the gold trade with salt  ​ Sonni Ali’s military campaigns and extractions from merchants threatened prosperity (from trade) ​ Djenne = hub of commercial exchange between Saharan Africa and Mediterranean Africa ​ Products reaching Timbuktu = textiles, tea and tobacco - most profitable was books ​ Trans-Saharan trade way was vital in stimulating the rise of Timbuktu SLAVERY ​ Slavery made up a large part of the population → entire towns might be considered slaves if captured ​ Empire depended greatly on royal slaves and privilege craftsmen ​ Many captives went to the markets, ores to citizens, ruler, army or terms ​ On his death, Sonni Ali gifted 12 slave ‘tribes’ to his successor (he was gifted 3) ○​ Divided in 3 tribes of 100 (50 male and 50 female) and each allotted 200 measures of land and given a production quota and allowed to keep the surplus ​ Askia Dawud had plantations each with 20-100 slaves / onlookers ​ Most were non-Islamic and often stateless in the south that cavalrymen raided ​ Status varied - fierce warrior captured in battle could be an officer, slaves were royal advisors (unbiased), palace slaves were craftsmen ​ Slaves also worked on village farms to produce enough food to feed the growing population ○​ Sorico, boat building regions, were economically and strategically important- had to obey commands for water transport ​ Sonni Ali took free muslims (as he was) and gave them as slaves ​ Timbuktu cleric tried to go on hajj with his family, ruler of Timbuktu gave only him permission and kept his family as hostages ​ Askia Muhammed liberated those who could prove they deserved their freedom → one man owned 1000 slaves ​ One high official, who murdered a rival in 1588, gave 10 slaves and to students ​ It was normal practice for an Askia to appoint a slave to distribute the necessary seed ​ Askia Dawud reduced the whole army of empire to slavery DECLINE OF SONGHAY CIVIL WAR AND SUCCESSION CRISIS ​ Episode of factionalism in the 1530s → Askia Muhammed, then 3 short-lived Askias which after the period of 1586-1588 saw civil wars ​ Heterogeneous nature of Songhay meant different groups were always vying for Paver → tensions increased between growing importance of Timbuktu and scholars who opposed Songhay’s traditional religious practices ​ Overwhelming power of the Askias - lack of genuine meritocracy made competition for the kingship title marked HELP FROM EUROPE ​ Force was so overwhelmingly extranational that the official language chosen was Spanish ​ Of the 4000 soldiers, only 1500 were moroccan ​ Al mansure acquired a trade relationship with England, allowing him to have a cannon ​ Knowledge of advanced military tactics, training and coordination came from European members ​ Possession of European designed weapons was vital to 3 year occupation of Timbuktu ​ Artillery pieces from England were essential WEAKNESS OF SONGHAY EMPIRE ​ Arequebus was dangerous to users →defect of exploding before being fired ​ Arequebus was slow to reload, slow burning and army experts could reload it in battle ​ Tondibi tactic of hiding behind cattle was tested and didn’t work as they fled at the sound of gunshots ​ STRENGTH = new Askia - Nuh- used guerilla tactics and alliances with war tribles to secure small victories ​ Askia Dawud died in 1583 and a power struggle ensued, weakening the Songhay army STRENGTH OF MOROCCO ​ Banu = invasion force was 4000 soldiers and 2000 non-combat troops, but were dramatically outnumbered ​ Troops sent were specifically trained elites and hand-picked ​ Force included 2000 footmen and ½ armed with arquebus and 500 mounted arquebusiers ​ 2500 troops - composed of Aldasian and renegades ○​ Cannon fired against Songhay never had to be reloaded ​ Army train included over 8000 camels, 1000 high bed horses and 600 sappers ​ 15,000 mile route across the Sahara to Niger ○​ Casualties lost on the 135 day march were heavy ​ Arrival of invaders surprised Gao, Tuaregs killed the messengers sent to tell them ​ Askia Ishaq offered them 100,000 pieces of gold and 1000 slaves to leave ○​ Judor wanted to accept but Mansu didn’t and sent troops ahead ​ Taxes collected by military force to fund the wars ○​ Yet they never found the gold supply ​ Reinforcements were strong and led by Muhammed who told them to construct three borges with natural materials ​ Battle of Gurma was a success, Askia Ishaq killed by Tuaregs ○​ Yet lack of food, troops and rescues prevented the army from having direct control ​ Clever and brutal trickery of the new Askia to offer the moroccans food and refuge then massacred them ​ Mulay Ahmed’s army had left Morocco in November 1590 and arrived at the river Niger at late February 1591 ​ Battle was started at Tankendibogho on March 13th DECLINE OF SONGHAY BATTLE OF TONDIBI ​ March 13th 1591 PRELUDE ​ Moroccan army led by Judar Pasha, a spaniard, captured by slaves and castrated, rose to be a trusted officer in the Al-Mansurs’ court ​ Moroccan army, while small, had modern firearms and baggage train ​ It took four months to cross the Sahara and they captured the salt mine (Taghaza) BATTLE ​ Estimates of Songhay army vary from 22,300 to 40,000 to 80,000 ​ Askia Ishaq wasn’t ignorant to the ability of firearms ​ He drove a herd of 1000 cattle towards their guns, hoping dust would provide cover for them to march ○​ Sound of guns scattered the herd and initial charge was cut down ​ Cavalry deployed but fell at the long range weapons ​ Many massacred and the rest fled the battlefield ​ Rear guard action fought hand to hand with moroccans but lost CONSEQUENCES ​ Pasha looted Gao but was disappointed so headed to richer trading cities of Djenne and Timbuktu and was sent 100,000 gold pieces and 1000 slaves as a peace offering ​ Al-mansur sent another army under Pasha (Mahmud) ○​ Battle at Bamba, October 1591 → Moroccan victory ​ Ishaq II faced issues with his brother, Muhammed gao and died, Muhammed was tricked into negotiations and arrested ​ Morocans failed to effectively control trans-Saharan empire and it broke apart MOROCCO SONGHAY -​ Judar Pasha, 6 cannons -​ Askia Ishaq II -​ 2500 infantry with arquebus, 500 -​ 9700 infantry, 1000 cattle, 12,500 -​ Infantry with bows, swords and cavalry 1500 cavalry ASKIAS ASKIA MUHAMMED BANI (RULED 1586-1588) ​ Lasted 1 year and 4 months, marked by drought, famine and inflation ​ Executed his brothers, Al-Hadi and Muhammed Bankara ○​ All sons of Askia Dawud, remaining children feared the start of another fratricidal civil war and began plotting against him ​ Sources charge him with tyranny and debauchery, likely for excessive tax ​ He faced revolt form ‘entire western sphere’ and gathered an army of 30,000 to suppress it  ​ Whilst waiting, he died in a ‘fit of rage’ or ‘heat, his mail and extreme corpulence’ ​ His death was initially concealed by the Eunuch slaves responsible for his grooming, feeding and washing ○​ Played a critical role in ensuring ASKIA ISMAIL VS. ASKIA ISHAQ II (1588-1591) ​ Following Bani’s death, eunuchs swore loyalty to Benga Forma Ismail, making him Askia Ismail I ​ Meanwhile, other slaves supported another son, Ishaq ​ Supporters of Ismail set a trap for Ishaq but the plot was revealed ○​ Ishaq was more prominent and recognised as the Askia ​ Sensing the empire weakening, Moroccan Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur Saadi dispatched a 4000 manforce and 6000 auxiliary support under Pasha across the Sahara in October 1590 ​ Ishaq assembled 40,000+ soldiers but faced Moroccans without gunpowder weapons in the Battle of Tondibi in March 1591 ​ Judar soon seized and looted the Songhay capital of Gao and trading centres of Timbuktu and Djenne, ensuring the empire’s destruction ASKIA MUSA (1529-1531) ​ Towards the end of Askia Muhammed’s reign, he relied heavily on Ali Fulan, the Hugukoray-koi (master of palace interior) ○​ Askia Muhammed was becoming blind but his sons were kept unaware of this to allow Askia Muhammed to keep his position of power ​ Ali Fulan advised Askia Muhammed’s young son to be appointed to the vacant prestigious position of Benga-forma (government of Benga) angering his brothers ​ Musa in particular was furious and claimed Askia Muhammed did nothing without Ali Fulan → deposed Askia Muhammed and successfully executed a bloodless coup on August 15th 1529, during which he killed 7 brothers and cousins ​ 1531 - a group of Musa’s brothers plotted against him and killed him in Mansura on April 12th 1531 ASKIA MOHAMMED BENIKAN/BONKANA (1531-1537) ​ He assumed power after Askia Musa, already military captain, he used his position to take the throne ​ Benjanwasn’t a direct descendant so to secure his position, he banished his paternal uncle, Askia Muhammed, to Kangaba Island  ​ Major opposition from Alu, one of Askia Muhammed’s sons ​ He attempted to reverse his uncle’s policy of relying on tans rather than peasants, but faced military failure (eg. sarking of Kebbi) ​ He was deposed in 1537, also went blind and died in 1559 ASKIA ISMAIL (1537-1539) ​ Aimed to free Askia Muhammed - reign marked with drought and famine ​ Obtained gold through Askia Muhammed’s eunuch and bought off Suma Kutubaki, a friend on Benkan - deposed by captains in Mansur and circle captured ​ Supported by Dendi-Fari, Ismail released his father; Askia Muhammed ​ He campaigned against Bakabula in Gurma, giving charge of the cavalry to Kurmina-fari ○​ Despite losing 900 horsemen, they won and had booty ​ Ismail died shortly after, in December 1539 ASKIA ISHAQ (1539-1549) ​ Chronicles suggest he was ne most ruthless Songhay ruler ever ​ Despite being a devout muslim, he sent agents to Timbuktu, demanding lots of money from merchants - against Islamic law ​ He was known to execute officials he saw as a threat ​ Fought against Mali with forces under his brother, Dawud but unsuccessful therefore the Moroccan sultan requested they give up the salt mines so Ishaq sent 2000 armed men to raid the market → shows strength ​ He died of natural causes in Kukyia and is buried there ASKIA DAWUD (1549-1582) ​ Married Soutren’s daughter and strategically placed his sons in key positions ​ Despite initial power struggles, he had 20 successful military operations → booty and captives ​ Huge expansion of slavery → linked to increase in military activity with royal plantations worked by slaves showing new economic growth dimensions ​ 2 major epidemics = pestilence in 1550-51 and disease in 1582-83 ○​ Diseases like VD / syphilis travelled with Europeans ​ Greatest military threat came from North Sahara. ○​ 1556-57 - troops of the new Moroccan sultan of Marrakesh captured Taghaza but withdrew ​ 1578 - Mansur of Morocco demans tax rev from mires; Dawud sent gold  ○​ Fighting over mines continued, guerilla warfare used by Songhay ASKIA AL-HAJJ MUHAMMED (1582-1586) ​ Named after Askia the great and his famous pilgrimage ​ Breakdown of diplomatic relations in Morocco, leading to military intervention and revolts from Kanfen ​ The Sultan of Morocco sent gifts, supposedly to spy on the land. A mission venture of 20,000 men was sent to Morocco taking the salt mines but failed due to hunger and thirst ​ He was in poor health and then was deposed by his siblings in 1586 and died shortly after THE KINGDOM OF KONGO GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT GEOGRAPHY ​ Coastal zone of Kongo was poorly populated and rainfall was poor ​ Concentration of settlements in the River valley had the best water supply and most productive soil ​ Areas like Sonyo and Mbamba were here ​ 100 km inland by a ridge - had 1000mm rainfall yearly ○​ Good for agriculture ​ Zone was densely populated; Nsundi, Mpangu, Mbata in north east and central provinces on Mpemba, Wembo and Wandu ​ Eastern area was very infertile and sparsely populated ○​ These areas were drawn in by territorial expansion in the 16th century ​ Overall, population was approximately 4 people per 1cm2 ​ Land had dangerous animals ​ Each province had a capital named after it ○​ Governors established their capitals around the most fertile sections of their province HILTON’S EXPLANATION ​ Primary economic activities = agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting and collecting ○​ Determined that settlement was normally dispersed ​ ‘Libata’ was a very small village with fewer than 30 houses and was descent based ​ Innumerable dispersed hamlets called ‘Ki-belo’ → lineage settlement had established a settlement / worked field ​ ‘Mbanza’ towns, which evolved due to trade, refugee settlements or concentrations of poorer areas of denser settlement on the same pattern with small settlements interspersed with cultivated fields ○​ Eg. Mbanza Sonyo in Zaïre estuary (NW) was the best watered and most populated area of a generally avid province RISE OF KONGO KINGDOM TERRITORIAL EXPANSION ​ Lack of documents / evidence to gain information from ​ 1st king led expansion southwards into lands ruled by Mpemba and established new base of Mbanza Kongo MIGRATORY ​ Extension of powerful authority to small state of Mpemba Kasi ​ A dynasty of rulers from this state built up their rule further along the Kuila valley ​ Possible migrations had military character and it is theorised copper and iron gave them an advantage POLITICAL ​ In around 1375, ruler of Mpemba Kasi made an alliance with the neighbouring Mbata kingdom by marrying the daughter ​ Alliances guaranteed allies would help ensure the others succession ○​ Son of this marriage born in 1380 is recognised as first Kongo king ​ Other alliances such as with Mwene Mpangala (lord), ruler of a market town and Mwene Kabunga  ○​ To cement these relationships, Lukeni Iua Nimi (first Kongo king) allowed many subordinate leaders to become ‘electors’ to the kingdom which played an important part in successions ​ Provinces that begun as ‘alliances’ gradually lost influence until their power was only symbolic ○​ Eg. Mbata was a co-kingdom in 1475 and in 1620 was known as ‘the grandfather of Kongo’ ​ Some suggest Kongo was a ‘common wealth’ rather than a ‘kingdom’ as it was founded on collaboration, marital corrections and mutual understandings as opposed to conquest MILITARY ​ Conquest is recognised as a bigger factor later in territorial expansion ​ Copper and iron gave them an advantage and encouraged alliances ECONOMIC ​ King allowed leaders to become electors ​ Governors served the kings term to have the right to appoint their clients to laver positions ADMINISTRATION ​ During the 15th century, centralisation increased as governorship was given to royals / nobles ​ Governors could appoint their own clients ​ Six unremembered kings – lack of sources ​ First king was Joao I ○​ Uncertainty means it is difficult to be precise about early expansion PEAK (GEOGRAPHICAL) ​ 16th century ​ Controlled 150 miles of coast ○​ From the Kongo river (north) to just south of the Luanza river ​ 250 miles of central African interior reaching Kwango river CAPE BOJADOR AND PRINCE HENRY CAPE BOJADOR ​ Unseen gullies made water spalt looking like steam ​ 3 miles seaward, it was no more than 2m deep ​ Fishing rising and slapping tails on surface looked like boiling ​ Extreme temperature ​ Ferras rocks made compass needles spin ​ Changing winds blowing strongly from the northeast ○​ All conditions would have alarmed medieval sailors ​ Portuguese passed Cape Bojador as they build boats with high bottoms and stronger sails using different methods of navigation ​ Portuguese attempted this as the fragmentation of Mongol empire (1368) and Byzantine empire loosened the political, cultural and economic unity of the silk road ​ Encroachment of sedentary civilians equipped with gunpowder → partly due to the devastation of the Black routes transferred trade routes across Europe PRINCE HENRY (NEW DEVELOPMENTS) ​ Circular astrolabe = measured the angle of stars above the horizon ​ Triangular quadrat = measured the height of the sun and stars above the horizon ○​ Used together could find the latitude ​ Compass = could be set in any direction ○​ All helped them navigate course off land → more flexible ​ Caravels = faster, stronger, lighter, more manoeuvrable ​ Caravels were dispatched to Cape Bojador → Europeans were scared as no one had ever passed ​ After Henry died, his work continued under his nephew ​ Over the next few decades, expeditions continued to venture south and rounded Cape of Good hope and sailed east to Asia HENRY: ORIGINS ​ Between 711 and 1249, North African Muslims (moors) ruled Portugal and Spain ​ Christian armies drove them out of Portugal in 1249 ○​ Moors attacked Portuguese ships, King John I wanted to remove their power, 25th July 1415, he left Lisbon with 200 worshippers ​ Appearance of their new armada caught the moors of guard ○​ They fell on 24th August 1415 ○​ Now Portugal controlled shipping lanes out of the mediterranean  ​ African gold, jewels, grains, indian spices paved into Portugal’s markets ○​ Portugal had to explore further to remain rich ​ Henry wanted to find a quick route to India ​ There were no accurate maps → no long-distance voyage completed ​ Captains sailed close to land and most in daylight ​ To prep for expeditions, he went to the most southwest Portugal and built the institution ​ Same thought the earth was flat and Cape Bojador was the end ○​ Henry didn’t believe this and offered prize money to find a route BACKGROUND ​ 3rd son of King John of Portugal was born in 1394 ​ He commanded the military force that captured Muslim outpost of Gueta ​ Founded the institution at Sagres → research facility used for development; included libraries, astronomical facilities / observatories, chapels, ship building facilities and housing for staff ○​ Used to teach navigation techniques and try to collect geographical knowledge, spread Christianity and inventions → experts employed ​ Even though he never sailed his own expeditions, he became known as “Prince Henry the Navigator” ​ Goal was to explore western coast of Africa and locate a route to Asia LATER ACTIONS ​ Captains were told to keep maps and charter courses everyday of their voyages → if they didn’t they were dismissed upon return ​ 1420 - reached Madeira, 400 miles off the northwest coast of Africa ​ 1427 - captains discovered Azeres, 1000 west of Sagres ○​ Found carvings on wood, dead animals, etc ​ Sighting convinced Henry that India was near ​ Caravels went further, captains brought back gold to fund voyages and establish the slave trade ​ 1444 - they weren’t content with raiding and began trading slaves ○​ Henry needed it to fund voyages ​ He later ordered them to stop but they continued ​ 1460 - he ran out of money and died ​ 1482 - Portuguese ship sailed to the mouth of the Kongo river ○​ 6 years later, Batolomeu Dias sailed around the Cape of good hope  ​ They reached India on 20th May 1498 when vasco de Gama arrived with 4 ships at Calcutta ○​ Henry had expanded sea travel which would eventually lead to the discovery of the Americas EXTRA INFORMATION ​ Henry sent 19 expeditions from 1424-1434 that were not confident enough to pass Cape Bojador ○​ Until, Captain Gil Eannes (previous attempts) sailed west prior to reaching the cape then headed east → avoided cape and unharmed ​ 1441 - the caravels reached Cape Blanc ​ 1444 - Captain Eannes brought the first load of 200 slaves to Portugal RISE AFTER 1480 POWER IN KONGO ​ Core of political / household authority was ‘kanda’ (lineage) ​ People migrated from across the Kongo river and formed alliances with other Kandas through marriage ○​ Structure of federal power allowed Kongo’s power to strengthen ​ Kongolese political power was recognised in kingdoms of Loango and Ndongo ​ Nzimbu shells - main currency - were located at Luanda ​ Relative isolation of Kongo from outside ended with Portuguese arrival ○​ Kongo was a deeply hierarchical society, which mirrored the Portuguese FIRST CONTACT ​ Diego Cao was exploring the Kongo river in 1482 - ships were filled with stone pillars engraved with the orders of Christ as one left each place ​ He wanted to go further and told 4 men to visit the Kongo king and were captured by the Manikongo who wanted to learn about Portugal ​ In retaliation, Cao took 4 Kongolese young men to Portugal where they converted to Christianity and learnt Portuguese ​ He returned in 1484 (19 months) - the men were regarded as the first ambassadors of Kongo to Portugal, Portuguese men released  ​ 1491 voyage to Kongo brought Portuguese priests, carpenters, soldiers and European goods ​ 3rd May 1491 - the king was baptised along with his family and they all took names after the Portuguese royal family at the time ○​ King Joao I, Queen Leanor and Prince Alfonso ​ 1000 subjects helped Portuguese to build a church and Portuguese soldiers helped defend Nsundi from Bateke raiders ​ European firearms were essential to their victory and hostage-taking ​ Within one decade of first contact, a ‘christian kingdom’ existed in western central africa for the first time MANIKONGO ALFONSO I ​ Governor of northern province, Nsundi ​ 1495 - Joao denounced Christianity and Alfonso welcomed priests to his area ○​ Ordered destruction of traditional art / objects (unpopular) that could offend the Portuguese - he stayed in Nsundi until his father’s death in 1506 ​ Elective not hereditary monarchs → Alfonso not guaranteed ​ Alfonso’s mother kept Joao’s death a secret so he could arrive before telling and be prepared ​ Council of 8 men and 4 women declare his brother to be the successor ​ Leading a group of 31 Christians, he attacked in July 1506 ○​ Victory is a ‘miracle’ as his brother’s army outnumbered them, but fled ​ He killed his brother and renamed the capital Sao Salvador as he believed that God had helped him with his victory ALFONSO’S REIGN (1509-1542) ​ He appointed his young cousin as ambassador to Rome → spread Christianity ​ 12 boys were sent to study in different monasteries of Italy and his son, Henrique, became a bishop in 1518 in Rome then returned and led a local Kongolese church ​ He asked King Manuel of Portugal to send missionaries, carpenters etc. → few were ○​ Among these were unmotivated former convicts ​ Many kongolese were captured and sent to Brazil on ships and sold as slaves ○​ He asked the Portuguese king for advice but was sent a book and ambassador who was corrupt and asked for money ​ Kongolese slaves weren’t sold again and often integrated / had rights ​ Portuguese slave trading was brutal, many killed and villages decimated before being sent to South America permanently  ​ Alfonso had a committee to stop it (unsuccessful), facilitated by Pope’s silence ​ Fearful, Alfonso tried to prohibit and in retaliation, Joao II of Portugal rejected his request for ships / builders needed to trade with ​ Joao tried to assassinate Alfonso, failing, and killed Portuguese traders etc. ​ Alfonso was succeeded by manikongos who increased slave trade EXPANSION AND POLITICAL STRUCTURE MBANZA KONGO ​ The capital, strategically positioned on the mountains → natural defences ​ As the population grew, the land became scarce, leading to famine ​ Kingdom expanded through migrations and military campaigns ​ Success of these expansions solidified Kongo’s dominance in central Africa MIGRATIONS AND TERRITORIAL EXPANSIONS ​ Late 14th - early 16th C - it expanded under the manikongos ​ Migrations were strategic to acquire fertile lands and establish influence ○​ Expanded northeast to Nsundi and Mpangu, east to Mbata and west to Soyo and Mbamba ​ Each expansion was led by a chief chosen by the manikongo ​ Cavazzi states that ruling classes in Mbanza Kongo grew more powerful ​ Kingdoms formation was slow due to international rivalries, succession disputes and external challenges (neighbouring population) ASSIMILATION AND POLITICAL SYSTEM ​ Kongo migrants often married some of the local Mbundu population and recognised their local chiefs → strong ties between central monarchy and regions ​ Kongo migrants also asserted political dominance ​ It became an important trade centre (iron) with local farmers and artisans paying tribute to the monarch for protection ​ By mid 16th C - six provinces of Mbamba, Soyo, Nsundi, Mpangu, Mbata and Mpemba → further divided by 1607, there were 35 territories TRIBUTE AND ROYAL CONTROL  ​ Each province sent tribute and had a local chief appointed by the manikongo ○​ Chiefs showed loyalty by getting branded by Royal fire ​ When the portuguese arrived, the western provinces of Soyo and Mbamab had already extended to the coast ​ Kongo engaged in military campaigns against Teke raiders ○​ Kongo expanded before the Portuguese arrived MILITARY EXPANSION / CONQUEST ​ Nsundi marked a shift in Kongo’s governance as royal governors had authority over provinces ​ 1491 and 1504, Portuguese assistance facilitated expansion into Nsanga and Masinga ​ Campaigns helped gain control of regions with resources → iron, cloth ​ Mbamba expanded southwest to Luanda by 1500, gaining control of fisheries ​ Salt producing regions near Luanda weren’t captured until after 1560 ​ 16th century saw more raids on neighbours, ensuring they paid tribute ​ Mbata joined peacefully (no warfare) meaning it retained its rulers as long as they recognised the manikongo ​ Ndongo and Matamba resisted Kongo’s expansion so by 1553, they were forced to pay tribute ○​ Rich in resources like iron, salt, cattle which Longo lacked - significant ○​ Taking these as tribute eliminated need to give up other resources in trade → promoting wealth ​ Kongo’s military expanded borders and secured resources ○​ Raids continued throughout both Alfonso I and Diogo I’s reigns EXPANSION OF MBATA AND SOYO ​ Mbata continued expanding in the 16th century , annexing new territories and accepting submission of smaller kingdoms ○​ Wandu annexed in 1526 → large independent kingdom placed under one of Alfonso’s sons ​ Soyo ruler was loyal and helped secure Alfonso’s succession ○​ 1491 - he was pivotal in advising King Joao I and securing Alfonso’s rise ​ But by the 1620s, Soyo asserted independence and contributed to civil war LIMITS OF EXPANSION  ​ Began to slaw in 1540s → southwest coast was unconquered and Ndongo became more resistant to influence, while they never integrated they paid tribute ​ By portuguese arrival in 1480s, Kongo already faced internal issues RISE OF NDONGO AND ANGOLA ​ Emergence of Ndongo came from rise of expansion → threat ​ The ‘Ngola’ (‘conquering king’) became a powerful figure in the southern Mbudnu region ​ Mid 16th century, Ndongo had become a centralised state with a strong military that stopped Kongo ​ Portuguese navigators appeared Angola to the whole region south of Kongo, referring to it as Ngola POLITICAL SYSTEM AND DEVELOPMENT ​ Manikongo was supreme ruler with absolute authority ​ Portuguese visitors in the late 15th century describe his court as grand with armed guards and musicians ​ King’s authority was shown by his travel ​ Rituals like Sangare were performed on national holidays, celebrating Alfonso’s success SUCCESSION AND WEAKNESS OF THE MONARCHY ​ CRITICAL FLAW: unclear succession ​ Next leader was selected from a pool of potential heirs (typically sons of the King’s sisters) following a matrilineal system of descent ​ European influence of patrilineal descent led to further complications ​ Lack of formal and consistent succession led to political instability (17th) MWISSIKONGO COUNCIL AND RISE OF CENTRALISED POWER ​ Mwissikongo council had 12 members (8 men, 4 women) who were typically the king’s relatives ○​ Elected manikongo and government and set procedures to organise affairs → principle women called ‘mother’ had significant power ​ New political group, separate from traditions and based on diversity, formed ○​ Undermined power of Kanda system and Mwissikongo grew in influence  ​ Members had lands in Mbanza Kongo → intense competition HIERARCHY IN KANDA AND RISE OF MWISSIKONGO ​ As power in the Mwissinkongo grew, local kanda chiefs increased authority by controlling prestige goods → iron, cloth, salt ○​ These were received by Mwissikongo governors in exchange for tribute ​ Arrangement created a more hierarchical system where kanda governors had their sphere of influence but were still dependant on Mwissikongo for prestige and power ​ Mwissikongo elite strengthened patrilineal lines with the ruling class ○​ Shift contributed to the emergence of a more patriarchal scheme of government where power, wealth and ties were passed through fathers ​ Development of centralised power laid foundations of the power struggle IMPACT OF EUROPEAN CONTACT AND THE SLAVE TRADE ​ By 16th century, increase European contact transformed political structures ​ Mwissikongo utilised the slave trade for wealth and expanding power ​ Slaves used as soldiers, farmers, etc → feed Mwissikongo from reliance on agriculture ​ By mid 17th century, estimated ½ the population were slaves - elites had become reliant on them → wealth generated increased Mwissikongo control ​ Kings / elites empowered by large slave populations grew influence and armies ​ By late 16th century, Mwissikongo personal guard made up 16,000-20,000 Tio slaves - controlled by Mwissikongo title holders → Mwissikongo system was independent POLITICAL STRUCTURE AND FRAGMENTATION ​ By 17th, Alfonso’s family monopolised kingship, branches of family such as ‘Mpanzu Alfonso’, ensuring sons from slave were legitimate ​ Economic changes brough by the slave trade increased reliance on patrilineal categories and centralisation of power → led to weakening Kanda ○​ Created internal tension, leading to fragmentation of the kingdom ​ After 1622, economy shifted and kings weakened → Mpanzu Alfonso lost the throne ​ Competing factions in the Mwissikongo elite and external challenges undermined the unity of the kingdom, leading to its eventual decline in the late 17th century CHANGES IN INHERITANCE AND THE ROLE OF CHRISTIANITY ​ Rise of patrilineal succession promoted Mwissikongo and Christian missionaries further shifting power dynamics ​ Christianity was embraced by manikongo elites in the early 16th century which reinforces the patrilineal line ○​ Adoption of christianity was a secondary factor in undermining traditional political structure ​ Manikongo accepted christianity - adopted Portuguese names which aligned them with Portuguese nobles ​ Association with christianity and slave trade wealth solidified their political power and established legitimacy born in the kingdom and abroad ​ Portuguese names became symbols of prestige and status ○​ Particularly important in relation to claims to the throne → names like Alfonso and Mbemba were associated with legitimate royals FORMATION OF PATRILINEAL CATEGORIES AND THE RISE OF THE MWISSIKONGO ​ As the Mwissikongo grew in power, so did the development of patrilineal succession ​ New sub-groups - defined by father’s lineage - saw distinction between Mwissikongo and kanda succession lines ​ Children born to Mwissikongo fathers and slave mothers, with no kanda affiliation, were part of the Mwissikongo patrilineal categories ○​ Individuals offered same prestige as traditional Kongo lineages ○​ Reinforced notion that power was concentrated in the patrilineal-line ​ New divisions shifted political power, in Mwissikongo elites took highest offices ○​ Led to a deep divide between Mwissikongo and non-Mwissikongo ​ Non-Mwissikongo held land and some traditional power but little had access to the kingdom’s wealth and political offices IMPERIAL STRUCTURE POLITICAL ​ In late 15th century, Mbanza Kongo already had a royal palace, central plaza and defence palisade  ​ City was ruled into a ‘stone city’ by stone masons ​ Alfonso had a wall between 5-7m high and 1m thick built around the royal quarter and Portuguese quarter ​ Mwissikongo sought to bypass political power of different Kandas ○​ Increased tensions at the time when slavery was increasing among freeborn Kongolese ECONOMIC ​ Local stonemasons built up the city, it grew rapidly so in 1595 the extended urban area around the city encompassed 10,000 horses ​ Growth was financed in trade, taxation and central power ○​ Increase in tribute from provinces as the population grew it needed more to sustain itself ​ Trade also grew in Kongo and Portugal ​ Copper was traded from the North ​ Power increased through the sustained rise in slavery MILITARY ​ After Alfonso took the throne in a civil war against his brother, Mpanzu al Kitima in 1509, the city developed ​ 1568 ‘Jaga’ invasion ​ Rise of slave trade created a reaction that threatened the kingdom ​ Alvaro I fled and asked Portuguese for help and troops were sent from Sao Tome ​ Mbanza Kongo was retaken in 1570, but manikongo were in debt to the troops / Portuguese SOCIAL ​ Jesuits arrival in 1548 - social model of succession changed SLAVERY EARLY STAGES ​ Already an established tradition of displaced people being slaves ​ Slave trade was vital in maintaining Portugal-Kongo relationship  ​ Portuguese began trading slaves quicker - Kongolese king was expected to protect his subjects (freeborn members) ​ In 1500s, due to rapid expansion, there was a population increase ○​ Most slaves were from wars against neighbouring kingdom of Ndongo in 1512 ​ Earliest slaves were ‘gifts’ to the Portuguese → Alfonso had many, most of which were criminals / captured ​ 1526 - correspondence showed Portuguese had begun to kidnap freeborns → caused tension ​ Alfonso was worried about the consequences of the trade ​ Kongolese nobles were sometimes implicated in the trade of freeborns which gained them power ​ Portuguese merchants kidnapped people from streets and homes ​ Inability to protect subjects was an issue on the domestic front, causing him to lose legitimacy in the eyes of the people CONFLICTS ​ 1568-1570 - reign of Alvaro I and ‘Jaga’ invasion ○​ Assumed Jaga were related to Yaka ethnic group ​ Captured capital → huge economic crisis ○​ Many freeborns sold, including princes and nobles ​ King of Kongo claimed they could protect all (including slaves) ○​ 1500s kings mostly successful ​ After widespread trade, (after Jaga), Alvaro was angry and sent an emissary to Sao Tome where slaves were held before transportation ​ Indicates that when central authority of the king was strong, he was able to look after his subjects LATER ISSUES AND AFTERMATH ​ 1590 - several civil wars and rebellions weakened the king’s authority and led to an increase in Kongolese slaves being traded ​ Slaves were the only commodity foreign powers wanted to trade ○​ Currency - Nzimbu shells - could buy slaves ​ Slaves became the tool through which Kongo developed and sustained other cultural and diplomatic ties with Europe ​ Kongolese authority paid the Catholic church in slaves for bishops to perform some ceremonies ​ Absence of slaves would inhibit relations with Portuguese / Dutch  ○​ Kings needed these allies to stop rebellions ​ 1641 - Garcia required the help of the Dutch military and paid them in slaves to defeat the Soyo after their independence declaration ​ Kongo stopped conquests of expansion by 1600 → slaves depleted ​ Rebellions, like Soyo, were a new way of supplying slaves ​ During the mid 1600s, it was common practice for nobles / freemen to be punished by slavery → for stealing, treason etc. ​ If several villages were deemed guilty, entire towns could be considered slaves ​ Kings couldn’t protect their subjects → fear caused civil wars that tried to place people they thought could protect them in power ​ Internal conflicts → many war captives, refugees and conquered people were captured by the British, Portuguese and Dutch slave traders that were shipped across the atlantic. DEVELOPMENT SOCIAL ​ Structural base was divided between capital and countryside ○​ 3 defined social groups: nobility, villagers and slaves ​ Same word for ‘slave’ meant ‘war captive’ → source of slaves ​ Kings had many wives therefore many children → after Alfonso’s 25 year reign he was believed to have had 300 grandsons and great grandsons ​ The king’s principle wife had to be a daughter / sister of the governor of Mbata, reigning prince in turn married a close relative of the King ​ A branch of his offspring, Nsaku Vunda provided the kingdoms supreme religious dignitary ​ 2 Nkatsu lords enthroned the king ​ Nobility had no hereditary function and lived, forgotten, in the capital ○​ At every other generation its hierarchy was redefined in relation to the new kings POLITICAL ​ Manikongo gained powers to appoint regional governors ○​ Dismissed governors and other officials as he saw fit to ​ Governors in turn appointed local officers and collected tribute such as ivory, millet, palm wine and lion / leopard skins  ​ In return, they received the king’s favour - military protection ○​ Religious aspect of tribute payment was considered respect to dirre ​ Alfonso I was the longest reign (1506-1543) and vital due to diplomatic relations (Portugal), vast economic and political reorganisation and a deliberate assimilation of Christian features that became permanent ​ Presence of Portugal created a new political dimension ​ Connected by marriage to various nobles it was split into Afro-Portuguese and those from their mother countries ​ After Alfonso died, social and political life had been transformed ○​ HOWEVER: the gap between nobility and normal people increased RELIGION ​ ‘Nkisi’ concept was fundamental and christians adopted it to mean ‘sacred’ ○​ Nkisi objects had spirits, church and bible ​ Disease and misfortune was often attributed to Ndaki (sorcerers) whom Nganga Ngambo could identify during ordeal ○​ Use of oracles stemmed from this as did the suspicion the king was Ndaki ​ King was sometimes addressed as Nzambi Mpungu (supreme creator) ​ By his tumba (blessing) he expressed his protection for royal officials and guaranteed fertility, principally through his control of rain ○​ The king, in a real and profound sense, was the Nkisi of the country ECONOMIC ​ Military expansion in the late 16th century → Royal Guard (made of slaves) was 16,000 - 20,000 and was the sole armed force of the kingdom ​ In time of war abroad, peasants were called up in territorial units ​ Every nobleman’s house had slaves and royal houses also had gifted slaves ​ Kongo at its peak had well over 2 million people and prospered due to trade in ivory, salt, cattle hides and eventually slaves ​ Kingdom was dominant local trade (ivory, copper, raffa cloth) ​ Slave trade was well-regulated → new markets happening on fixed days to sell slaves from upper Kongo river ○​ Kingdom also produced its one goods through craftworkers, such as ones involved in agriculture, hunting and breeding ​ Bakongo and others had special schools to train elites → struct criteria of selection ○​ Europeans didn’t understand the culture / kingdom labelled these schools (also Kimpasi, Lemba and Buelo) as secret societies  ​ Level of trade conducted by forest / grassland people of western central Africa was shown through Nzimbu currency (from Luanda 240 km in sea) ○​ Initially to secure wealth → coins (paid for goods) ​ There were trade rivers of Loango and Tio, born in the North of Kongo and loose confederation of tribes of Ndongo to the south (modern Angola) JAGA INVASION THE INVASION ​ 1568 - Jaga invaded Kongo → strengthening the ruling elite by using armed Portuguese and guns ​ They received increased trade revenues which they invested in slaves ○​ Slaves used as soldiers, cultivators and made elite independent from Kanda ​ Improved communications and literacy enhanced administrative efficiency ○​ Christianity developed as a legitimate ideology ​ Filippo Pigafetta said the Jaga entered Mbata, defeating manikongo Alvaro I who sought refuge in Mbanza Kongo then fled to Zaire ​ They seized the capital, burnt villages and churches causing Kongo to flee ​ Alvaro appeared to be the King of Portugal who sent 600 men to help ​ Portuguese rallied Kongo forces and drove Jaga out in one and a half years ○​ Likely result of developments in another slave-producing state - Makoko ○​ Dislocated groups from the lower middle Kwango attacked Mbata in 1568 ​ Mbata was attractive to raiders due to its good soils, climate, agricultural surpluses and peaceful population ​ Invasion begun as raining for slaves / food and continue to break Makoko’s slave-selling monopoly ​ At the end of the 15th century, the manikongo could raise an army of 80,000 men but had no standing army ​ Invasion coincided with a period of change and conflict in Kongo ​ Alvaro I restored the kingdom with the help of Portuguese guns POLITICAL ​ Diogo I (1546-1561) suppressed opposition to his centralising policies and designated his son as successor  ​ Alvaro I (1566-1587) succeeded to the throne but was in a poor position to mobilize an army to resist the Jaga - he restored the kingdom with the help of Portuguese guns ​ Most Portuguese remained in Kongo after the restoration, providing a care of fighting men to maintain the kingdom ​ Portuguese from the new colony of Luanda, established in 1575, joined the Kongo following manikongos tribute route in search of trade ​ Late 16th - early 17th century - some Portuguese tried to escape the tyrants of Luanda governors and formed a community ○​ Community identified more closely with Kongo affairs and sometimes conspired with rivals of manikongo and Luanda Portuguese ​ Portuguese in Kongo had an interest in strong kingship to keep trade routes open and guarantee security, often opposing Luanda governors ○​ In 1606, Luanda authorities considered licensing Kongo trade and executing offenders due to pro-Kongo sympathies from Portuguese traders ​ In post-restoration, kings benefited from guns → military importance ​ Alfonso I tried to buy guns in the early 16th century but was refused by the captain of Sao Tome, Luanda traders and the Portuguese king ​ Less control over Portuguese communities were able to secure guns and powder → supply was small but effective ​ Any title holder, apart from the king, allowed guns was Mani Mbata who needed them to repel Jaga ​ Manikongo bought guns, Portuguese gunmen and support through greatly augmented trade revenues ​ Governors sent ‘ad hoc’ tribute payments for political purposes ​ Each provincial governor had an official to handle tribute and dispatch it to the king RELIGIOUS CHANGES ARRIVAL ​ 1482 - Diogo Caro made contact and returned in 1485 when he sailed home with Kongo missionaries who were baptised in Lisbon and assimilated ​ 1490 - Joao II sent a fleet of 3 camels with emissaries, Portuguese masons, carpenters, soldiers, missionaries, animals, cloth, 2 German printers and printing press DOWNFALL ​ Portuguese wanted to spread Catholicism but disillusionment came quickly and led to military confrontation → Kongo defeated at Ambuila in October 1665 → rapid decline CONVERSION ​ 3rd April 1491 - Chief of Soyo baptised followed by Nzinga Nkuwa and 5 chiefs - king adopted Joao I ​ 1000s of subjects helped Portuguese masons to build a church and Portuguese soldiers accompanied the army on a campaign against Teke raiders ○​ European firearms were pivotal in their success ​ Queen baptised and renamed Eleanor and son baptised and renamed Alfonso → 4th June 1491 ​ Most portuguese had departed with ivory and slaves ​ Priests and craftsmen removed but king's faith was short lived ​ Rebellion in Mazinga a Nsanga which the Portuguese provided Joao with military aid and he was victorious ALFONSO ​ Towards the end of Joao’s reign, he allied with outlying province chiefs and converted them, he and his brother (Mpanzu a Kitima) contested the throne ​ He was a christian and had missionaries’ support - he executed his brother ​ His brother’s army was far superior but there was an appearance of 5 horsemen led by St James the Great → Alfonso made a coat of arms of this which 5 arms holding swords ​ During his reign ‘ne vunda’ (traditional priests) were given jobs of supervising construction etc. → example of marriage of African spirituality and catholicism ​ He tried to emulate Portuguese society → sent for missionaries and studied Portuguese laws through 5 volumes sent to him about etiquette and society ​ He adopted speech and modelled himself on catholic kings. Provincial governors were known as Dukes and military leaders / officials as Counts ​ 1513 - he took an oath of obedience to the Pope and created a literary class to grow bureaucratic government ​ 1509 - he built schools for 400 pupils and kongo elite were educated in Portugal ​ He intended to consolidation of a network of missionaries in provinces to make Mbanza Kongo the religious capital ​ Spread of faith followed aristocratic channels → route to royal favour LATER CHRISTIANITY ​ In early days there was little attempt to control clergy ○​ Disorderly situation (Portuguese view) was dealt with by the king Manuel who made the Alfonso send someone to be ordained in Europe → Henrique ​ After Henrique died, Portuguese tried to exercise power and had the Pope place Kongo under jurisdiction of Bishop of Sao Tome in 1534 → no control ALVARO I ​ Missionary activity was slowly rebuilt (after Diogo) with arrival of Dominicans with Portuguese ​ He sometimes considered donating land to Portugal but also sought to limit Portuguese control and seek new European allies → church preserved by clergy and missionaries ​ He requested missionaries to Europe (Spain and Portugal) and to the Pope as well as missionaries to rebuild kingdom ​ 1587 - Alvaro I died → he had been unable to remove kongo from the tutelage of the Portuguese DIOGO ​ Quickly showed he only tolerated christianity to serve his political / economic plan ​ 1546 - Bishop of Sao Tome visited and suggested constructing a convent to train citizen but Diogo wanted to limit his clergy’s power and drove him out in 1547 ​ 1548 - ambassador Gomes returned with 4 Jesuit missionaries who set up a school in Mbanza Kongo → Jesuits advised Joao II to replace Diogo ​ After 1549, Diogo limited activities of missionaries and denounced conspiracies against him ​ 1553 - failed to establish direct relations with the Pope, Diogo increased pressure on missionaries and unite colonies ​ 1557 - disagreements led to most Europeans being banned from his states ​ 1557 - 5 Fanciscan monks replaced the jesuits → slightly better ​ Jesuit reports from mid 16th century showed Diogo turned from christianity to support national interest against Portugal and persecuted clergy ​ They thought they would have power in Kongo as upon Diogo’s ascension to the throne he sought Papal recognition and declared himself obedient STAFF  ​ Secular organisations the Capuchins added their own hospices, both training their staff and using staff of the church ​ If there was a lack of clergy, ‘Nleke’ or ‘church slaves’ acted as priests, interpreters, masters of moral churches and preferred functions ○​ Accompanied priests on tours of the church SUMMARY ​ Extent christianity’s influence can be measured by the number of European clergy → most under Alfonso I and weaker 16th / 17th as priests abandoned Kongo for Angola ​ Capuchin mission bought resurgence →finally disappeared in 19th century ​ As kongo controlled the churches attempts to use it for political leverage by outsiders was unsuccessful → constantly tried CAPUCHINS AND ACCEPTANCE ​ Rome always considered Kongo Christian → Capuchins disputed there in 1645 to administer sacraments and improve community ​ They felt peasants were ignorant to christianity due to local clergy and they doubled the strength kongos enforcing / promoting PRIESTS ​ Christian priests were called ‘Nganga’ → witch hunts, healers etc. ​ Special initiation - ‘Kimpasi’ - was used in the famine / issues → some priests preferred traditional processions in the times of trouble MONEY MAKING ​ State was responsible for division of land revenue and no individual land permanently establish rights to incur through renting land ​ Income given to some people and some to the king ​ Church income was king-granted money so it had assured income but wasn’t involved in collection → therefore state controlled church revenue BAPTISM AND TRADITIONS  ​ Baptism was part of Kongo initiation - one of the only sacraments kongo priests wanted as people could take ‘Dom’ in front of their name ​ Due to personal and time shortages, most people saw a priest once a year on his annual tour, stepping for a few days to deliver sermons, baptise and marry ​ Christian Ngonga were certified through hierarchy (recognition and training) ○​ Traditional Ngonga recruitment was less centralised and controlled ​ Due to miracles and apparitions, many local deities became Catholic saints ​ Ancestors had a special place → All Hallow Eve (halloween) was dedicated to them ○​ Gathered at graves, kept a night vigil with candles and prayers and in the morning they held mass PRIESTS AND TABOO ISSUES ​ Priests focused on placing recognised religious officials at the centre of events and were responsible for crushing sinful practice → polygynous marriage ○​ 2 most common priest activities who burning fetishes and exonerations ​ Priests faced competition from original Ngongas (not considered pagans by priests and nor were people’s conception of religion and cosmology ​ Ruler found recognising Rome’s authority didn't lose sovereignty but gave them diplomatic leverage in Europe ​ Kongo secured papal denunciation of Portuguese invasion of southern Kongo in 1622 due to good relations ​ At the start, multiple wives was a major barrier to Christianity which was overcome by transferring it into concubinage ○​ Kongo nobility married a head wife and kept the others as concubines → it was criticised by the church but wasn’t unchristian Conversion didn’t fundamentally change religious outlook but was largely a product of renaming existing concepts and institutions EXTRA INFORMATION ​ Basis of church was an educational system which made Kongo literate ​ Christian (16th century) students went into priesthood and government ○​ Reunited from the highest level of nobility and responsible for the interpretations of Christianity in Kongo → taught rural people prayer and hymns ​ Priests would travel around villages, baptising 100s daily unlike the real mission work which was the responsibility of church staff LATER RELATIONS AND FAIL ​ 1596 - Kongo king requested the country be seen separate as Sao Tome and Bishop of Sao Salvador ​ King of Portugal obtained the right to appoint Bishop and tried to maintain control ○​ This failed and Portuguese set out to destroy church in Kongo ​ 1624 - Bishop permanently moved to Luanda, leaving a rump of pro-Kongo clergy in Sao Salvador and stopped ordaining new Kongo clergy ○​ Kongo combatted this by regularly getting new clergy from Rome ​ 1st Italian Capuchin arrived despite hostility in 1649 ​ Kongo began to dissolve, Sao Salvador was abandoned and the country was broken into smaller territories of warlords and nobility ​ Common people looked for their faith in Christianity to restore kingdom ​ Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita was a Kongolese woman of high birth who fell ill in 1704 and claimed to be possessed by St Anthony’s spirit ○​ She called for the revitalisation of the kingdom ​ Divine communication revealed an African holy family → Jesus was born in Mbanza Kongo and baptised in Nsundi while Mary was a slave of a nobleman in Nzimba Mpangi ○​ Movement recognised papal authority but was hostile to European missionaries ​ Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita and followers briefly occupied Mbanza Kongo and sent missionaries to spread the word and urge territories to unite under one king ​ 1706 - she was captured by King Pedro II of Portugal and burned as a heretic at the behest of capuchin monks DIPLOMACY CLIMATE INSTABILITY ​ 17th century had droughts and plagues of locusts afflicting the kingdom ○​ Part of a pattern of mini-ice age and was more acute in the 1640s ​ Climactic instability exacerbated political tensions and contributed to warfare which led to the trans-Atlantic slave trade ​ Kongo faced rapid inflation of its Nzimbu shell currency once the Portuguese began to import large amounts from their Brazilian colonies ALFONSO AND POLITICS ​ Kongolese ambassadors in portugal were usually high ranking officers in the Mwissikongo ​ Alfonso sent a constant stream of letters to the Portuguese, requesting assistance in construction and evangelicalisation ​ Later in his reign he protested about the enslavement of freeborns by slave traders of Sao Tome and asked his ships conduct trade on his account ​ He developed a literate administrative culture, stabilising Mbanza Kongo ​ ○​ After his death relations declined → key moment after Jaga ​ Establishment of Portuguese settlement of Luanda threatened the power of Kongo and Alvaro tried to persuade Ndongo kings no to accept the Portuguese ​ 1580 - Ngola of Ndongo rebelled but it was too late as the Portuguese presence in Luanda was already permanent GARCIA ​ This court matched his Kongolese custom with opulence of imported goods from the Atlantic trade ​ Missionary, Joseph Pelliver de Tavor, described ‘extremely valuable jewels’ and ‘stones of unthinkable value’ - 1649 IMPACTS ​ Finery of European court was key in the how Kongo presented itself diplomatically ​ Kongo iconography and style were in the Royal stool and use of ivory ​ Two centuries of intense trade and cultural connection gave Kongo power LATER RELATIONS ​ Luanda became a slave trading base, creating instability in Kongo as its raids were made by both Portuguese and Kongo enemies ​ Kongo sought support in diplomatic / military channels ○​ 1610+ had Dutch alliance which the Portuguese knew - first Kongo-Portugal war in 1622-24 ​ Series of Portuguese governors at Luanda dispatched military expeditions of horrific violence into Kongo with the sole aim of stealing slaves → power ​ Portuguese governor at Luanda, Joao Correia de Sausa’s troops defeated by Pedro II’s army near Mbanda Kasi ​ Hatred was shown through mass riots against Portuguese in Kongo ○​ Pedro I wrote to the Dutch suggesting a joint land invasion of Luanda  ​ 1623 - Dutch sent a fleet to seize both Luanda and Portuguese colonies in Brazil ​ After seizing Salvador da Bahia in northeast Brazil, they reached Angola in October 1624 under Piet Heyn ○​ Pedro died and Garcia cooperated with the Portuguese and refused Puet Heyn FALLOUT ​ Subsequent wars followed in 1641-1643 and 1646-1648 after Dutch seized Luanda and Sao Tome in 1641 ​ Under Garcia II, Kongo sided with the Dutch, sending ambassadors to their court in Brazil ○​ Portuguese army defeated Dutch-Kongolese forces in 1648 and new governors of Angola were Brazilian military leaders who imposed stiff penalties leading to simmering conflicts ​ Garcia II sought diplomatic redness through vatican and resistance of impositions ○​ Resistance gave an excuse for an attack on Luanda → Antonio I was defeated by the Portuguese at Mbwila in 1665 ​ Defeated led to 98 lineage heads being killed → caused issues in succession / authority MANIKONGOS ALFONSO I: 1509-1543 (34 YEARS) ​ Child of Joao I, high ranking officer and baptised when Portuguese arrived in 1483 ​ Developed own authority in Nsundi and allowed 2 Catholic priests to live in his court ​ Had Portuguese missionaries support (especially after his father’s denunciation) ​ Had access to European goods and copper from northern Kongo river (used in business and ritual wedding items → rare → Portuguese helped fight Teke raiders ​ His mother delayed announcing Joao’s death so Alfonso could gather an army ○​ Whilst being outnumbered, St James appeared and gave Alfonso victory ​ He executed his brother and consolidated power in the kingdom ​ Inauguration of slave trade with Portuguese allowed him to buy merchandise to increase his own patronage and develop board alliances outside territories ​ Portuguese traders came in 1508 due to growing demand for slaves on sugar plantations on Atlantic islands of Sao Tome →gave them in return for royal monopoly  ​ Initial slaves were prisoners of war from neighbouring states like Mbundu ○​ Portugal despised his monopoly so acquired slaves from Kongo nobles (particularly from the coastal province of Nsoro) ​ This angered Alfonso and he even threatened to expel merchants → unknowingly caused future issues by sending silver to Lisbon, accidentally convincing them of the existence of rich silver mines in Kongo ​ When they didn’t heed his please, he allowed others to sell them by the 1530s, BUT he set taxes and commanded only official boats for transportation ○​ Change came from new slave pod up the Kongo river in the 1520s ​ Neighbouring kingdoms (eg. Tio) gave gifts for European goods ​ Officials burnt talisman to show dedication to Christianity and built churches ○​ BUT he kept concubinage and little was done to stop this ​ His son, Henrique, studied in Europe and became a priest → 1518 named Bishop of Kongo by the vatican → Alfonso cultivated ties to the papacy → not dependent on the Portuguese ​ His sons occupied prominent provinces and struggled for succession ​ Portuguese traders and nobles plotted to kill him but failed → died naturally in 1543 ​ Rule brought and ambitious legacy → trans-Atlantic slave trade DIOGO I: 1545-1561 (16 YEARS) ​ Grandson of Alfonso I, nobles rejected the son of Alfonso - Pedro - and chose Diogo ​ Pedro I was pushed 1545 and fled to a church for protection ​ To overcome opposition, Diogo developed a network of clerical support which he manipulated → eg. welcomed Jesuits in 1548 to counteract opposition from Capuchins ○​ Turned against the Jesuits and expelled them in 1565 after banning them from teaching women and holding mass ​ They had demanded that Diogo dismiss all spouses and many close relatives ​ He invited Franciscan missionaries in 1557 and supported them until his death (1561) ​ When he received Papal indulgences he put them around his neck in a silk bag called ‘Santissimo sacramento’ → talisman in Christian context ​ Authorised priest visits to Matamba (south) and Loango (north) to spread Christianity ​ Slaves didn’t answer to aristocrats → nobles lost some previous authority ​ Nzimbu shells as currency made Portuguese traders dependant as they controlled the supply  ​ Growing involvement in international trade between Portugal and Tio showed signs of undermining Nzimbu since Europeans could trade … for slaves, ivory ○​ He offered new opportunities to Europeans to escape the Portuguese ​ Jewish converters to CHristianity moved to Kongo and were free from being shut out of government positions in Sao Tome → defied the Portuguese ​ Tried to fend off african rivals with autocratic approach of remaining nobles ​ 1550 - he launched an officially inquiry into Pedro I → many changed with this polit ○​ Coincided with his decision to make a written will of successor → bold ​ 2 grandsons of Alfonso denied this method and wanted continued council ○​ Diogo crushed this rebellion but escaped to Sao Tome and unsuccessfully tried to get papal blessing to be King ​ 1556 - launched war against Ndongo as business was cheaper there ○​ Diogo was defeated and Ndongo restored formal diplomatic recognition from Portugal in 1557 therefore Kongo had lost its privilege as sole kingdom with European alliances ​ Diogo messing with the succession led to civil war after his natural death on 4th November 1561 ​ His son, Alfonso II was overthrown within a year and the succession crisis continued ALVARO II: 1587-1614 (27 YEARS) ​ Fought brother for the throne → to avoid bloodshed they fought single combat ​ Lost control of money supply as fisheries with Nzimbu were found by Portugal and had Brazil colonies → flooded economy and caused inflation ​ Didn't have some control as when Portuguese docked ships in Kongo ​ By 1619, shells were worth 20% of the value of at the end of Alvaro I’s reign ​ 1540-1541 - Count of Soyo took independence → to recognise nobles he granted orders of Christ even though only the king of Portugal could ​ Sao Salvador was the capital and the first bishop was appointed in 1596 due to Portuguese right to patronage they chose the Bishop → contention between Bishop and mani-kongo ​ Relations worsened with Alvaro II complaining to Spanish / Portuguese king ​ 1604-1608 - he sent an ambassador to Pope Paul V, called Emmanuel ne Vunda, who left with 25 people and 4 years laters later with 4 ​ Emmanuel was very sick so the pope came to him, later that tonight on the 5th, he died → parallels to journey of Magi ​ His body was buried opposite the manger site in a church GARCIA I: 1624-1626 (2 YEARS) ​ Came during tension of civil war, but he succeeded his father peacefully ​ The Dutch, under Pret Heyn, arrived in 1624 to take Luanda and didn’t have Kongo’s support ​ He was planning to attack Angola as a catholic couldn’t ally with non-Catholics ​ Bad relations with Jesuits and expelled 2 in 1625 saying they were responsible for previous kings’ death and poisoned a Bishop in 1624 ○​ Despite this there was no question to his Catholic commitment ​ Unable to defend the throne → 1626 = overthrown by disgruntled nobles ​ At royal ladies’ request, Ambrosio, son of Alvaro III was king, restoring the Kuilu Kanda to power ​ Garcia wasn’t killed but was forced to flee Soyo with wife and grandmother ALVARO I: 1568- 1587 (19 YEARS) ​ Large group of Imbangala (1588) entered from the east and defeated Alvaro’s army, sacked Mbanza Kongo and slaughtered Kongolese civilians and soldiers ​ IMBANGALA = people disrupted by warfare and slave raining from Kwango rivalry and displaced warriors from outside Kongo to trade with Europeans ​ Alvaro fled to the island of horses on Kongo river → famine and hardship ○​ Turned to Portuguese garrison on Sao Tome and Principe for support ​ Approx. 600 soldiers led by Fransisco de Gouveia Sotto sailed to Kongo and vanquished Imbangala bands from 1571-1573 ​ Portuguese claimed he has promised them untaxed goods, which was unlikely ​ Establishment of portuguese colony in Angola in 1575 was a potential threat, both militarily and economically ​ Luanda created an alternative point for exporting slaves not under Alvaro ​ Kongolese rafa cloth created a new market ​ They eliminated old rivals by ending threat of Ngola kingdom ​ He sought, with limited success, to break from the tutelage of Portugal, but most ambassadors to the Vatican fell victim to pirates and storms ​ Alvaro sent representatives to Ndongo to encourage the to attack Angola and yet Kongo sent troops to fight Ndongo but failed → eg. of complex policy ​ He had little luck bringing in missionaries, coping with few priests which limited the spread → Pope Sixtus V didn’t need pleas for missionaries ​ He successfully placed his son, Alvaro II on the throne, which was difficult as his mother was a slave ○​ This was allowed due to Alvaro II’s military successes → formed a regiment of musketeers after the Jaga invasion  ​ Promoted slaves to positions in government ​ Advantages to multiple wives was forming his household without aristocrats PEDRO II: 1622- 1624 (2 YEARS) ​ King during first conflict with Portugal and founder of Royal House of Nsundi ​ Served in government under Alvaro III as Duke of Mbamba ​ When Alvaro III died in 1622, he was elected as promising candidate ​ Virtuous man and model christian, Jesuits viewed him as paragon of Christ ○​ Reflects support he gave Jesuits and their emission when they fell out with Portugal ​ When he claimed the throne, governor of Angola, Joao Correia de Sousa, sent an army claiming he was king ​ Notorious against southern Nambu a Ngongo, 20,000 Portuguese with Impangala entered Mbamba and fought Duke of Mbumbu who was outnumbered and defeated, killing the duke and Marquis of Mpemba were eaten by Impangala ​ Pedro declared Angola an enemy of the state and met invaders of Mbundu a Kasi ​ Anti-Portuguese riots broke out and threatened long-established merchant community ​ Portuguese throughout Kongo were humiliatingly defeated and forced to give up clothes ​ He wrote letters of protest to Rome, resulting in Joao Correia de Scusa being disgraced and re-return of 1200 slaves to Brazil ​ Not wanting to alienate the Portuguese merchants, generally loyal in war, did a lot to preserve their lives and property → therefore some called him the ‘king of the Portuguese’ ​ He also wrote to the dutch general proposing the newly formed West India Company should assist him in an attack of Luanda with Bakengo attacking by land and dutch by sea ○​ 1623 - Dutch agreed and sent a fleet to Luanda and Portuguese colonies of Brazil ​ Pedro died bu tin 1641, the dutch attacked Luanda GARCIA II: 1641- 1660 (19 YEARS) ​ Attended Jesuit school in Mbanza Kongo with his brother Alvaro in 1620 ​ Gained reputation of good military leader after 1634 when he fought with unpopular Alvaro V against Duke Daniel da Silva of Mbamba in Nsoyo province → appointed Marquis of Kiara by Alvaro V ​ Alvaro V tried to kill Garcia and brother, who defeated and decapitated him  ​ Alvaro VI died suddenly in 1641, Garcia, aided by a cannon, marched on Mbanza Kongo and evicted electors and proclaimed himself king ​ Dutch captured Luanda but couldn’t dislodge Portuguese → Silva, Duke of Nsoyo, and Garcia’s enemy declared war on him in 1646 and captured his son / heir ​ Provincial commander Salvador Correia de Sa led an armada to Brazil. To drive out the Dutch in 1648 ​ 1649 - Carreia asked to have land south of Bengo river surrendered to Portugal to have mining rights → treaty unsigned as they couldn’t agree ​ 1657 - defeated Royal family of Nsundi and 1655 failed bid to invade Nsoyo bu maintained power → INTERNAL STRUGGLES ​ Reign relied on council of leading nobles and clergy, built alliances with aristocrats through marriage → eg. Duke of Mbamba married a daughter ○​ Removed potential rival families from important political offices ​ Relied on Capuchin friars from Italy and Spain → sent ambassadors to ensure their arrival → provided spiritual aid (locust attacks) ​ Several of his own family were ordered as priests ​ Secular priests convinced Garcia that capuchins had betrayed him, encouraging rivals to replace him and giving ammunition → Garcia honoured his religion ​ Punished Kimpasi members for killing Capuchin priest by making them slaves ​ Authorised campaigns against African religious movements ​ No subsequential leader sustained authority over born domestic and international threats as effectively ANTONIO I: 1661- 1665 (4 YEARS) ​ Sought to renew Kongo’s war with Portugal without the Duke, like Garcia II he pursued an aggressive foreign policy on the remaining Portuguese ○​ Dutch had signed the Treaty of Hague, 1661 with the Portuguese after conflicts in Brazil ​ He sent missionaries to Spain, contacted Matamba and semi-independent kingdoms of Dembos and Mbwila → failed ​ December 22nd 1663 - king of Portugal ordered commanders in Angola to take control of copper mines, exploit deposits and send ships to Lisbon → Antonio I denied mines ​ 1664 - longo brewing dispute between Angola and Kongo peaked about the nights of mining at the border territory in Mbwila ​ Antonio had 21,000-29,000 men → peasant archers (15,000) and 5000 heavy infantry with shields and swords and musketeer regiment of 380  ​ Core of Portuguese forces commanded by Luis Lopes de Sequena was 450 musketeers and 2 light artillery pieces, soldiers from Brazil colonies (including Native Americans and Africans ) as well as Imbangala and ores → 15,000 ​ Antonio’s army advanced into Portuguese formation with a vanguard followed by 3 divisions of heavy infantry and archers → Duke of Bengo commanded reserve ​ 400+ Kongo infantry were killed and may more archers, unable to break the Portuguese formation and Antonio I killed ​ Most forces broke down after his death and survivors were only able to withdraw due to skilful rearguard actions by Duke of Bengo and reserves ​ Antonio’s son was captured, 98 Kongolese lineage heads and 400 minor nobility were killed ​ Decimation of Kongolese was key in the power vacuum that started the period of civil war (1665-1678) and eventual collapse of the kingdom into warring states FALL OF KONGO TIMELINE ​ 1622-24 - first Kongo-Portuguese war → Pedro I victorious and seeks Dutch alliance ​ 1624 - Garcia I is pro-Portuguese and refused Dutch alliance ​ 1641-1643 - second Kongo-Portuguese war → Dutch seized Luanda and Sao Tome, forced alliance with Kongo which was ended by Portuguese peace treaty in 1643 ​ 1648-1649 - third Kongo-Portuguese war → Dutch defeated by Portuguese fleets from Brazil and Kongo and fined to pay ​ 1665 - Kongolese army destroyed by Portuguese at Battle of Mbwila - starts civil war ​ 1668-1678 - Mbanza Kongo is sacked by rivals and abandoned ​ 1700s - Kongo is fragmented → Beatriz Kimpa Vita in charge of Mbanza Kongo CONDITIONS OF TRAVEL ​ Wars fought by Portuguese and Dutch in Kongo due to slave trade and surplus agricultural produce which could feed those outside of Africa ​ European slave traders couldn’t sail across the Atlantic without African agriculture ​ 2 months waiting with 270 captive due to lack of food ​ By 1645 - there was real fear of famine ​ Silver that came from Potosi was shipped via Luanda to China SILVER TRADE ​ By 1600, slave ships regularly sailed from Luanda to Buenos Aires → Portuguese way living → at the height of its trade, the trade of silver that left Angola was 18 ships ​ Exchange of silver for slaves constituted a drain on West-African economies ○​ Accelerated global inequalities in capital and increased political instability ​ Worsened when Dutch lost Sao Tome and Luanda to Portuguese in 1648 ​ Governors of Luanda, who followed its recapture, had both been leaders against the Dutch in Brazil wars ○​ Triggered final confrontation between Kongo forces under Antonio I and Portuguese at the Battle of Mbwila in 1665 CONFLICTS ​ Kimpasi was a secret society that exemplified the changes in Kongo ​ Following the defeat of Mbwila, Manisoyo invaded Mbanza Kongo in an attempt to install its own candidate as king ○​ Led to destruction of paintings, churches and widespread attacks on Portuguese settlers ​ The civil wars that followed signalled the unravelling of Kongo and Portuguese early colonial settlement in Angola ​ Portuguese overthrow Manisoyo → in 1671 they defeated Aidi army ​ 1704 - Beatriz Kimpa Vita led to a religious uprising that proved the eventual way to peace in Kongo ​ Second half of 18th century had relatively long and stable rules ​ Resentment caused by corruption of elites and unpopularity of those involved in the slave trade TENSIONS ​ Tension between old Kongo system and central administration that had risen in Mbanza Kongo since the Atlantic trade ​ Before Mbwila, Garcia II had arrested important nobility in 1657 → tensions ○​ Many claimed these were rightful heirs and plotted against Garcia II ​ Fierce battles between rival lineages that followed Mbwila were a result of the enormous power vacuum created by the decimation of Kongo nobility ​ Dutch alliances of Kongo defeated in 1648 ​ 1640-1665 - Portuguese fought a long independence war with Spain →barred spanish ships from areas → NOT Luanda as they wanted silver trade  ​ Hearing rumours of Spanish invasion of Nanda in May 1664, Portuguese ambassador in Brazil sent 3 infantry platoons ○​ Invasion never took place → troops used to invade Kongo out at Mbwila IMPACTS ON K