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**Ex questions=** **What does an independent variable represent in an experiment -** controlled variable **A precise measurable def of what is being studied is called a what -** quantitative **What is sampling bias -** a bias that occurs when a sample is collected in such a way that some members...

**Ex questions=** **What does an independent variable represent in an experiment -** controlled variable **A precise measurable def of what is being studied is called a what -** quantitative **What is sampling bias -** a bias that occurs when a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others **Interviews and observations are examples or what kind of measure-** qualitative **What does peer review involves-** ethical guidelines **Quizlet**: [**[https://quizlet.com/951444390/key-concepts-in-psychological-research-methods-flash-cards/?i=51q2kw&x=1jqt]**](https://quizlet.com/951444390/key-concepts-in-psychological-research-methods-flash-cards/?i=51q2kw&x=1jqt) **[Review terms:]** Psychology- the scientific study of the mind and behavior confirmation bias- the tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs Hindsight bias- the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. Overconfidence- the tendency to be more confident than correct- to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgements Empirical evidence- information acquired by observation or experimentation scientific method- a systematic approach to research where a problem is identified, relevant data is gathered, a hypothesis is formulated from these data, and the hypothesis is empirically tested Hypothesis- a testable prediction, often implied by a theory Falsifiable- capable of being disproved by experimental results Peer review- a process by which something proposed (as for research or publication) is evaluated by a group of experts in the appropriate field Replication- the action of repeating a study, using the same methods to see if the original results can be consistently reproduced Reliability- the consistency of a research study or measuring test Validity- the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to The american psychological association (apa)- a professional organization representing psychologists in the US Quantitative data- information about quantities; that is, information that can be measured and written down with numbers Qualitative data- descriptive information, which often comes from interviews, focus groups, or artistic depictions such as photographs Likert scales- a psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaires, and is most widely used scale in survey research Structured interviews- a quantitative research method where the interviewer a set of sequence of questions Survey technique- a research technique that involves the collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions Wording effect- the effect that question phrasing and order have on survey data Social desirability bias- a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself Naturalistic observation- observing subjects in their natural environment without manipulation or control by the researcher Case study- an in depth study of a single person, group, event, or community Correlational research- a type of non experimental research method, which studies the relationship between two variables with the help of statistical analysis Third variable problem- a form of confounding in which a third variable leads to a mistaken causal relationship between two others Scatter Plot- a graphical representation of the values of two variable for a set of data Correlation is NOT causation, correlations predict correlation coefficient- a statistical index of the relationship between the two things (from -1 to +1) Positive correlation- a relationship between two variables in which both variables move in the same direction. For one example, as one variable increases, the other also increases, indicating a direct relationship Negative correlation- a relationship between two variables in which the variables move in opposite directions. For example as one variable increases, the other decreases, indicating an inverse relationship Experimental method- a method of research where the researcher manipulates one variable and controls/randomizes the rest of the variables independent variable- the variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher dependent variable- the group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested Confounding variable- a variable that influences both the dependent variable and independent variable causing a spurious association operational definitions- specifically defining a variable in terms of how it is measured or manipulated in a study Experimental group- the group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested control group- the group in an experiment that does not receive the test variable Random assignment- assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing the preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups Experimenter bias- a process where the scientists performing the research influence the results, in order to portray a certain outcome Single-blind study- a study in which the participants do not know whether they are in the control group or the experimental group but the researchers do Double-blind study- a study in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment Placebo condition- a condition in which treatment is not administered but the subject believes that it is administered Sample- a subset of individuals from a larger population, used to conduct research representative sample- a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole Random sample- a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion Sample bias- a bias that occurs when a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others Generalizability- the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized or extended to others. Statistics- a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of masses of numerical data descriptive statistics- statistics that summarize the data collected in a study inferential statistics- statistics that allow one to make predictions and inferences about a population based on a sample of data Measure of central tendency- a statistical measure that identifies a single value as representative of entire distribution Mean- the average of a set of numerical values Median- the middle value in a list of numbers Mode- the value that appears most often in a set of data Range- the difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset Normal curve- a bell shaped curve that represents a distribution of values, frequencies, or probabilities so that most measurements are concentrated around the middle (mean) Regression to the mean- the phenomenon that if a variable is extreme on its first measurement, it will tend to be closer to the average on its second measurement Positive skew- this happened when more numbers in a list are on the lower side, but a few really high numbers stretch the average higher Negative skew- this is when more numbers in a list are on the higher side, but a few really low numbers pull the average down standard deviation- a measurement of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values Percentile rank- the percentage of scores in its frequency distribution that are equal to or lower than it Bimodal distribution- a distribution that shows two different peaks or modes in the frequency of occurrences Statistical significance- this tells us if the result of an experiment is probably true or just happened by chance. It checks if what found in our experiment would happen often, or is rare when we think nothing special is going on Effect sizes- thus measures how big the impact of something is in an experiment. For example, it tells us how much a medicine really helps compared to not using the medicine at all Meta analysis- a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies Institutional review boards (IRB)- a committee that reviews and approves research involving human subjects, ensuring that ethical standards are met. Informed consent- permission granted with the knowledge of the possible consequences, typically that which is given by a patient to a doctor for treatment with full knowledge of the possible risks and benefits Informed assent- agreement by a minor or other parties not able to give legal consent to participate in the activity Confidentiality- the requirement that private or sensitive information is not disclosed without the consent of the person who provided it. Deception- the act of misleading or wrongly informing someone about the true nature of a situation Confederates- individuals who appear to be participants in a study but are actually part of the research team Debriefing- providing participants in a study with a full explanation of the study after its completion. Including the purpose and any deceptions used. **[Notes on Research methods of psychology]** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Descriptive research methods - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Correlational research - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **[Perspectives in psychology:]** - - **Psychodynamic:** Explores how unconscious drives, conflicts, and childhood experiences shape behavior. **Behaviorism:** Focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they\'re learned through interaction with the environment. **Humanistic:** Emphasizes personal growth, free will, and the concept of self-actualization. **Cognitive:** Examines internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Biological:** Studies the physiological bases of behavior in humans and animals. **Evolutionary:** Considers how behavior and mental processes serve as adaptations for survival and reproduction. **Sociocultural:** Analyzes how culture, social norms, and social environments influence behavior. **Biopsychosocial:** Combines biological, psychological, and social factors to provide a comprehensive understanding of human behavior