Biological Theories of Aging PDF

Below is a detailed overview of 11 biological theories of aging organized into two major categories: programmed theories and damage or error theories. These theories provide insights into the complex biological mechanisms that contribute to the aging process. I. Programmed Theories of Aging Program...

Below is a detailed overview of 11 biological theories of aging organized into two major categories: programmed theories and damage or error theories. These theories provide insights into the complex biological mechanisms that contribute to the aging process. I. Programmed Theories of Aging Programmed theories suggest that aging is a result of genetically regulated processes that follow a biological timetable. 1. Programmed Longevity Theory ​ Concept: Aging occurs due to the activation and deactivation of certain genes over time. Aging-related genes lead to cellular senescence and eventual decline in physiological function. ​ Key Evidence: Genes like p53 and telomerase are known to influence cellular life cycles. ​ Criticism: The role of external factors like environment and lifestyle isn’t fully addressed. 2. Endocrine Theory ​ Concept: The endocrine system regulates aging by controlling hormonal levels that influence metabolism, growth, reproduction, and repair mechanisms. ​ Key Evidence: Hormones like insulin, growth hormone (GH), and cortisol are linked to aging. For instance, high levels of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) are associated with shorter lifespan in some species. ​ Application: Hormonal therapies, such as estrogen replacement therapy, aim to slow aging processes. 3. Immunological Theory ​ Concept: The immune system deteriorates with age, leading to increased vulnerability to diseases and slower recovery from injury. ​ Key Evidence: Age-related inflammation (termed "inflammaging") and reduced production of T cells are linked to aging and chronic diseases like Alzheimer’s. ​ Criticism: Some aspects of immune decline are influenced by external pathogens, not purely genetics. II. Damage or Error Theories Damage or error theories propose that aging results from accumulated damage to cells, tissues, and organs over time due to external and internal factors. 4. Wear and Tear Theory ​ Concept: The body, like a machine, wears out over time due to repeated use and exposure to environmental stressors. ​ Key Evidence: Cumulative damage to DNA, proteins, and lipids is observed in aging cells. ​ Criticism: Many biological systems have repair mechanisms that challenge this theory's simplicity. 5. Free Radical Theory ​ Concept: Aging results from oxidative damage caused by free radicals (unstable molecules) generated during cellular metabolism. ​ Key Evidence: Antioxidants like Vitamin C and E have shown to reduce oxidative stress in some studies. ​ Limitations: Recent research questions whether free radical damage alone can account for all aspects of aging. 6. Mitochondrial Theory ​ Concept: Mitochondria, the energy powerhouses of cells, produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) during energy production, leading to oxidative damage and mitochondrial dysfunction. ​ Key Evidence: Accumulated mitochondrial DNA mutations impair energy metabolism, contributing to aging-related diseases. ​ Criticism: Mitochondrial repair mechanisms suggest this isn’t the sole cause of aging. 7. DNA Damage Theory ​ Concept: Aging results from the accumulation of DNA damage over time, leading to mutations, loss of genetic integrity, and reduced cellular function. ​ Key Evidence: Conditions like progeria and Werner syndrome, caused by genetic mutations, mimic accelerated aging. ​ Criticism: DNA repair mechanisms may counteract damage more effectively than this theory assumes. 8. Cross-Linking Theory ​ Concept: Proteins and other macromolecules form cross-links due to sugar molecules (glycation), which leads to decreased elasticity and impaired function.  ​ Key Evidence: Collagen cross-linking is a hallmark of aging, contributing to skin wrinkles and loss of flexibility in blood vessels. ​ Criticism: The role of cross-linking in aging beyond specific tissues is less clear. 9. Telomere Shortening Theory ​ Concept: Telomeres (protective caps at the ends of chromosomes) shorten with each cell division, eventually leading to cellular senescence or apoptosis. ​ Key Evidence: Shorter telomeres are associated with aging and age-related diseases. The enzyme telomerase can extend telomeres and slow cellular aging. ​ Criticism: Not all tissues rely on telomeres for their aging process, limiting its universality. 10. Error Catastrophe Theory ​ Concept: Errors in DNA replication and protein synthesis accumulate over time, leading to cellular malfunction and aging. ​ Key Evidence: Malfunctioning proteins and mutated DNA increase with age in many organisms. ​ Criticism: Cells have proofreading and error-correction mechanisms that minimize errors, questioning whether this is the primary driver of aging. 11. Caloric Restriction and Metabolic Theory ​ Concept: Aging results from metabolic stress caused by excessive calorie intake, leading to oxidative stress and molecular damage. ​ Key Evidence: Caloric restriction extends lifespan in various species by reducing metabolic rate and oxidative damage. ​ Criticism: The direct applicability of this theory to humans is still under investigation. Conclusion These 11 biological theories of aging offer distinct yet interrelated perspectives on why and how organisms age. While programmed theories emphasize genetic and hormonal regulation, damage or error theories focus on accumulated cellular damage. Integrating these approaches could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the aging process. Further research is required to unravel the complex interplay of these mechanisms in humans. If you'd like, I can help refine these into an essay format or provide detailed examples for each theory. Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, made profound contributions to psychology, psychiatry, and the understanding of human behavior. His theories have significantly shaped modern thought on the human mind and behavior, even though some of his ideas remain controversial. Below is a structured breakdown of Freud's major contributions: 1. Psychoanalytic Theory Freud’s psychoanalytic theory is one of his most influential contributions. It explains human behavior by focusing on the role of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and desires. Key Concepts: ​ The Unconscious Mind: Freud proposed that the unconscious mind stores repressed memories, desires, and instincts that influence behavior. ​ The Conscious, Preconscious, and Unconscious: He introduced a three-layer model of the mind: ○​ Conscious: Current awareness. ○​ Preconscious: Accessible thoughts and memories. ○​ Unconscious: Hidden drives and desires. ​ Freudian Slip: Errors in speech or action reveal unconscious thoughts. 2. Structure of Personality Freud’s model of the mind as structured into three components became foundational in psychology. Components: 1.​ Id: Represents primal instincts, desires, and drives (e.g., aggression, sex). Operates on the pleasure principle. 2.​ Ego: Mediates between the id and reality. Operates on the reality principle. 3.​ Superego: Represents internalized societal norms and morality. This structure explains inner psychological conflict as a struggle between these components. 3. Psychosexual Development Freud proposed a five-stage model of child development, each focusing on different erogenous zones. Stages: 1.​ Oral Stage (0-1 year): Focus on oral pleasures (e.g., sucking, biting). 2.​ Anal Stage (1-3 years): Focus on bowel and bladder control. 3.​ Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Focus on genital exploration; development of the Oedipus and Electra complexes. 4.​ Latency Stage (6-12 years): Sexual desires are repressed; focus on social development. 5.​ Genital Stage (12+ years): Maturation of sexual interests and adult relationships. Impact: This model emphasizes that unresolved conflicts in childhood stages can lead to fixation and influence adult personality. 4. Defense Mechanisms Freud introduced the concept of defense mechanisms as strategies the ego uses to manage conflicts between the id, superego, and reality. Examples: ​ Repression: Pushing distressing thoughts into the unconscious. ​ Projection: Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts to others. ​ Denial: Refusing to accept reality. ​ Displacement: Redirecting emotions to a safer target. ​ Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable impulses into acceptable behaviors. Defense mechanisms remain a widely recognized concept in modern psychology. 5. Dream Analysis Freud explored the meaning of dreams in his book The Interpretation of Dreams (1899). He viewed dreams as the "royal road to the unconscious." Key Concepts: ​ Dreams represent repressed desires and unconscious thoughts. ​ Dreams have two levels: ○​ Manifest Content: The literal storyline of the dream. ○​ Latent Content: The hidden, symbolic meaning of the dream. Dream analysis became a core part of psychoanalysis. 6. Oedipus Complex Freud theorized that young boys develop unconscious sexual desires for their mothers and view their fathers as rivals. This stage occurs during the phallic stage of psychosexual development. Female Equivalent: ​ Freud also introduced the Electra Complex, describing a similar dynamic for girls, though this concept was less developed. 7. Influence on Psychotherapy Freud developed the method of psychoanalysis, which laid the foundation for modern talk therapy. Core features include: ​ Free Association: Encouraging patients to verbalize thoughts without censorship to uncover the unconscious. ​ Transference: Patients transfer feelings for significant figures (e.g., parents) onto the therapist. ​ Catharsis: Emotional release resulting from exploring repressed emotions. Psychoanalysis continues to influence therapeutic approaches today. 8. Exploration of Human Sexuality Freud challenged Victorian taboos by emphasizing the role of sexuality in human behavior and development. He argued that: ​ Sexuality begins in infancy (controversial at the time). ​ Sexual energy, or libido, drives human behavior. His exploration of sexuality opened new avenues in understanding human motivation and relationships. 9. Contributions to Art, Culture, and Literature Freud’s theories extended beyond psychology and influenced fields such as: ​ Art and Literature: Concepts like the unconscious and Freudian analysis are used to interpret works of art and literature. ​ Philosophy and Sociology: Freud’s work inspired discussions on human nature and society, particularly regarding repression and instinctual drives. 10. Groundbreaking Publications Freud's ideas were popularized through a series of influential books and papers: ​ The Interpretation of Dreams (1899): Introduced dream analysis. ​ Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905): Discussed psychosexual development. ​ Civilization and Its Discontents (1930): Explored the conflict between individual instincts and societal norms. 11. Legacy and Criticism Freud’s contributions remain foundational, but they are not without criticism: ​ Strengths: His focus on the unconscious, childhood experiences, and personality structure laid the groundwork for modern psychology. ​ Criticism: Critics argue that his theories lack empirical evidence and rely too heavily on subjective interpretation. His emphasis on sexuality has been seen as reductive. Conclusion Freud’s work revolutionized the understanding of the human mind. His theories—ranging from the unconscious mind to psychosexual development—continue to inspire both support and critique. Despite some limitations, Freud’s contributions remain pivotal in psychology, psychotherapy, and the broader study of human behavior. If you’d like, I can help expand this into an essay or provide more detail on specific theories! In developmental psychology, old age is typically characterized as the later stage of life, starting around 60-65 years and extending into the final years. This stage is marked by significant biological, psychological, and social changes, and is influenced by individual experiences and environmental factors. Below are the key characteristics of old age according to developmental psychology, categorized for clarity. 1. Physical Characteristics Old age is often associated with physical decline, as biological systems begin to function less efficiently. a. Physical Decline ​ Decrease in strength, endurance, and energy levels. ​ Reduction in muscle mass and bone density, leading to frailty and an increased risk of fractures. ​ Decline in sensory functions: ○​ Vision: Issues like cataracts, presbyopia (farsightedness), and reduced peripheral vision. ○​ Hearing: Hearing loss (presbycusis), especially high-frequency sounds. ○​ Taste and smell: Reduced sensitivity to flavors and aromas. ○​ Touch: Decreased skin sensitivity and slower response to pain or temperature changes. b. Health Challenges ​ Chronic illnesses such as arthritis, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and hypertension become more prevalent. ​ Immune system weakening increases vulnerability to infections and slower recovery. ​ Sleep disturbances are common due to changing sleep patterns and conditions like insomnia. 2. Cognitive Characteristics Old age is marked by changes in cognitive functioning, though these changes vary widely among individuals. a. Decline in Cognitive Functions ​ Memory: Short-term memory and working memory tend to decline, while long-term memory remains relatively intact. ​ Processing Speed: Slower reaction times and reduced mental processing speed. ​ Problem-Solving: Difficulty with complex problem-solving or multitasking. ​ Attention: Reduced ability to focus on tasks for extended periods, particularly when distractions are present. b. Neuroplasticity and Learning ​ Despite declines, older adults retain the capacity to learn new skills, especially when tasks are meaningful and repetitive. ​ Mental stimulation (e.g., reading, puzzles, social engagement) can maintain or even improve cognitive function. c. Risk of Cognitive Disorders ​ Increased risk of neurodegenerative conditions like Alzheimer’s disease, dementia, and Parkinson’s disease. 3. Emotional Characteristics Emotional changes in old age often reflect increased self-awareness, coping mechanisms, and a focus on well-being. a. Emotional Stability ​ Many older adults exhibit greater emotional stability and resilience due to accumulated life experience. ​ A tendency to focus on positive emotions and meaningful relationships is often observed (the positivity effect). b. Erikson’s Stage: Integrity vs. Despair ​ According to Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory, old age is dominated by the conflict of integrity vs. despair. ○​ Integrity: A sense of fulfillment and acceptance of life achievements, leading to peace and wisdom. ○​ Despair: Regret over missed opportunities or unresolved issues, leading to fear of death or bitterness. c. Coping with Loss ​ Old age often involves coping with significant losses, including: ○​ Death of loved ones or a spouse. ○​ Loss of independence due to declining health or mobility. ○​ Retirement and loss of professional identity. 4. Social Characteristics Social changes in old age revolve around shifts in relationships, social roles, and community engagement. a. Retirement and Role Changes ​ Transition from work to retirement alters daily routines and social identity. ​ Older adults may take on new roles, such as caregivers for grandchildren or mentors within their communities. b. Shrinking Social Networks ​ Reduced social circles due to the death of peers, physical limitations, or relocation (e.g., moving to assisted living facilities). ​ However, close family relationships and long-term friendships often remain strong. c. Social Isolation ​ Many older adults face social isolation due to physical impairments, reduced mobility, or living alone. ​ Social isolation is associated with negative outcomes like depression, anxiety, and poor health. d. Importance of Social Support ​ Maintaining social connections through family, friends, or community groups significantly contributes to emotional well-being and life satisfaction. 5. Psychological Characteristics Old age brings a unique set of psychological challenges and opportunities for growth. a. Search for Meaning ​ Older adults often reflect on life and seek meaning in their experiences. ​ Activities such as volunteering, spiritual engagement, or creative pursuits can provide a sense of purpose. b. Coping with Mortality  ​ Increased awareness of mortality leads to a focus on legacy and generativity (leaving something meaningful for future generations). ​ Acceptance of death as a natural part of life is linked to greater psychological well-being. c. Mental Health Concerns ​ Higher rates of depression and anxiety may occur, often linked to health issues, isolation, or loss. ​ However, many older adults exhibit remarkable adaptability and resilience. 6. Behavioral Characteristics Behavioral changes often reflect the interaction of physical, cognitive, and emotional factors. a. Slower Pace of Life ​ Older adults may engage in fewer activities and prefer a slower, more deliberate pace of life. b. Routine and Familiarity ​ Preference for routine and familiar environments as a way to maintain stability and reduce stress. c. Engagement in Meaningful Activities ​ Participation in hobbies, volunteering, or social events helps maintain a sense of identity and satisfaction. 7. Positive Aspects of Aging Despite challenges, old age can be a period of growth and fulfillment. a. Wisdom ​ Older adults often exhibit greater wisdom, defined as the ability to make sound judgments and provide valuable insights based on experience. b. Emotional Maturity  ​ Increased emotional regulation and focus on meaningful relationships contribute to higher levels of life satisfaction. c. Life Satisfaction ​ Many older adults report higher levels of happiness and contentment, particularly when physical and social needs are met. Conclusion The characteristics of old age, as understood in developmental psychology, encompass physical, cognitive, emotional, social, and behavioral changes. While old age presents challenges such as declining health, it also offers opportunities for growth, wisdom, and fulfillment. Understanding these characteristics helps in promoting healthy aging and improving the quality of life for older individuals. If you'd like, I can expand this into a detailed essay or provide additional research and examples! Emotional and Moral Development: A Comprehensive Exploration Emotional and moral development are fundamental aspects of human growth that influence behavior, relationships, and decision-making. Emotional development involves the evolution of feelings, emotional expressions, and regulation, while moral development pertains to the progression of a sense of right and wrong. This essay explores these interconnected domains, focusing on their characteristics, underlying theories, and the roles of family, peers, and societal influences in shaping individuals from infancy to middle adulthood. Emotional Development: Types of Emotions Emotions are psychological states that drive human behavior, enabling individuals to respond to internal and external stimuli. They are typically categorized into primary and secondary emotions. Primary emotions, such as happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, and surprise, are innate and universal, appearing early in infancy. In contrast, secondary emotions—such as shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride—are complex and emerge later, as they require self-awareness and social understanding. Emotional Behavior Across Life Stages Emotional behaviors undergo significant transformations across life stages, influenced by biological, cognitive, and social factors. Infancy In infancy, emotions are primarily communicated through crying, smiling, and other basic expressions. Attachment plays a pivotal role, as secure bonds with caregivers form the foundation of emotional well-being. Phenomena like stranger anxiety and separation anxiety emerge as infants develop a sense of security and recognition of familiar individuals. Early Childhood During early childhood, emotional regulation begins to take shape. Children learn to manage emotions through parental guidance and imitation. Empathy also emerges, enabling children to recognize and respond to the feelings of others. This stage is marked by an increased ability to express frustration, affection, and joy. Middle Childhood In middle childhood, children exhibit improved emotional understanding and regulation. They develop the ability to recognize complex emotions and adopt strategies for managing them. Peer interactions become increasingly significant, offering emotional support and shaping social-emotional skills. Adolescence Adolescence is characterized by heightened emotional intensity, driven by hormonal changes and identity exploration. Conflicts with parents and emotional volatility are common as adolescents seek autonomy. Romantic relationships begin to develop, introducing new emotional experiences. Middle Adulthood By middle adulthood, individuals typically achieve greater emotional stability and resilience. Emotional regulation is refined, and life transitions such as parenting or career changes bring unique emotional challenges. Despite these, adults often report greater satisfaction with relationships and an increased ability to manage stress. Temperament and Emotional Development Temperament is the biological basis of personality and significantly influences emotional development. Defined as an individual’s innate style of emotional reactivity and regulation, temperament can be classified in several ways. Thomas and Chess identified three primary types: easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up. An “easy” temperament is marked by adaptability and positive mood, while a “difficult” temperament involves irregular routines and intense reactions. Slow-to-warm-up children are cautious and require time to adapt to new situations. Rothbart further categorized temperament into dimensions such as extraversion, negative affectivity, and effortful control, highlighting its complexity. The Role of Family and Peers in Emotional Development Self-development and emotional growth are deeply influenced by interactions with family and peers. Role of Family Parents play a crucial role in shaping emotional behaviors. Secure attachment fosters self-confidence and emotional regulation, while inconsistent parenting may lead to anxiety or insecurity. The style of parenting also impacts emotional development. Authoritative parenting, characterized by high responsiveness and firm guidance, promotes emotional stability and self-regulation. In contrast, authoritarian, permissive, or neglectful parenting styles can hinder emotional growth. Role of Peers Peers are equally significant in emotional development, particularly during middle childhood and adolescence. Positive peer interactions teach cooperation, empathy, and conflict resolution, while negative influences, such as bullying or peer pressure, can cause emotional distress. Friendships offer emotional support, helping individuals navigate challenges and develop self-concept. Moral Development Moral development is the process by which individuals acquire a sense of morality, encompassing the ability to differentiate between right and wrong and to act accordingly. Two major theories, developed by Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg, provide insights into this progression. Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development Jean Piaget identified two stages of moral reasoning: heteronomous morality and autonomous morality. In the heteronomous stage, typically observed in children aged 4-7, rules are viewed as unchangeable and established by authority figures. Morality is judged based on consequences rather than intentions. In contrast, autonomous morality emerges around age 7 and beyond, when children begin to view rules as flexible and consider intentions in moral judgments. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg expanded Piaget’s work by proposing a three-level, six-stage model of moral reasoning: 1.​ Preconventional Morality: At this level, morality is self-centered, with a focus on avoiding punishment (Stage 1) and seeking personal rewards (Stage 2). 2.​ Conventional Morality: Individuals prioritize societal rules and expectations. They seek approval from others (Stage 3) and maintain social order (Stage 4). 3.​ Postconventional Morality: Morality is guided by abstract principles. At Stage 5, individuals recognize the importance of social contracts, while Stage 6 emphasizes universal ethical principles such as justice and equality. Kohlberg’s theory highlights the complexity of moral reasoning and its reliance on cognitive and social factors. Parenting, Peer Relations, and Moral Development Parenting and peer relationships also play vital roles in moral development. Parents instill moral values through modeling and reinforcement, while peers challenge individuals to navigate moral dilemmas in real-life contexts. For instance, moral reasoning may evolve through interactions such as resolving conflicts or collaborating on shared goals. Conclusion Emotional and moral development are intertwined processes that unfold across the lifespan. While emotional development focuses on the regulation and expression of feelings, moral development emphasizes the formation of ethical principles. Both are influenced by biological predispositions, social interactions, and cultural norms. Theories by Piaget and Kohlberg offer valuable frameworks for understanding how morality evolves, while the roles of family and peers highlight the importance of social contexts in shaping emotional and moral growth. By fostering supportive environments, individuals can achieve emotional resilience and moral integrity, essential for leading fulfilling and ethical lives. If you'd like further refinement or specific examples added to this essay, feel free to let me know! Here is a detailed note based on the syllabus content provided in the image: Module 2: Social Development 1. Process of Socialization from Infancy to Middle Adulthood ​ Definition of Socialization: The lifelong process of learning norms, values, behaviors, and social skills appropriate to one's society. ​ Stages of Socialization: ○​ Infancy: Early bonding and attachment (e.g., primary caregivers' role). ○​ Childhood: Development of social roles through play, school, and peer interactions. ○​ Adolescence: Identity formation and peer influence. ○​ Young Adulthood: Establishing intimate relationships and professional roles. ○​ Middle Adulthood: Maintaining relationships, contributing to society, and experiencing role transitions (e.g., parenting). 2. Vygotsky’s Theory of Social Development – Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) ​ Key Concepts: ○​ Social Interaction: Vygotsky emphasized that social interaction is fundamental for cognitive and social development. ○​ ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development): ​ Defined as the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance. ​ Highlights the role of scaffolding by more knowledgeable others (e.g., parents, teachers). ○​ Cultural Tools: Language, symbols, and social customs influence development. ​ Application: Learning occurs through collaboration and guided participation, shaping social skills and cognitive growth. 3. Development of Attachment Types of Attachment (Based on Ainsworth's "Strange Situation" Study): 1.​ Secure Attachment: ○​ Children feel safe and trust caregivers. ○​ Explores environment but seeks comfort when needed. 2.​ Insecure-Avoidant Attachment: ○​ Child avoids caregivers, showing little emotion when they leave or return. 3.​ Insecure-Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment:  ○​ Clingy behavior, fear of abandonment, difficulty calming down after separation. 4.​ Disorganized Attachment: ○​ Lack of consistent behavior; often linked to trauma or neglect. Bowlby’s Ethological Theory of Attachment ​ Key Principles: 1.​ Attachment is biologically programmed to increase survival. 2.​ Caregiver's responsiveness forms the foundation of a secure base. ​ Four Phases of Attachment Development: 1.​ Pre-Attachment Phase (0-6 weeks): Infants signal needs (e.g., crying) to attract caregivers. 2.​ Attachment-in-the-Making (6 weeks-6 months): Infants start preferring familiar caregivers. 3.​ Clear-Cut Attachment (6-18 months): Strong attachment; separation anxiety appears. 4.​ Formation of Reciprocal Relationships (18+ months): Development of a partnership with caregivers. Factors Affecting Attachment ​ Parental Sensitivity: Responsiveness to infant cues. ​ Cultural Context: Differences in parenting styles. ​ Child Temperament: Easy, difficult, or slow-to-warm-up. ​ Environmental Factors: Family stability, socioeconomic status. 4. Marital Life Style and Parenthood in Young Adulthood Marital Life Style: ​ Transition from singlehood to marriage. ​ Adjustment to shared responsibilities and roles (e.g., financial, emotional). ​ Communication and conflict resolution as key factors in marital satisfaction. Parenthood: ​ Shift in roles and responsibilities after becoming parents. ​ Impact on personal identity, relationship dynamics, and professional life. ​ Balancing work and parenting duties. 5. Empty Nest Syndrome  ​ Definition: Emotional distress experienced by parents when children leave home. ​ Key Characteristics: ○​ Feelings of loss and loneliness. ○​ Possible redefinition of marital roles and individual purpose. ​ Coping Strategies: ○​ Fostering new hobbies or interests. ○​ Strengthening social connections. ○​ Reconnecting with a partner. 6. Attraction, Love, and Close Relationships – Adult Marriage Life Attraction: ​ Theories of Attraction: ○​ Similarity, proximity, and physical attractiveness. ○​ Evolutionary factors influencing mate selection. Love: ​ Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love: ○​ Three components: Intimacy, passion, and commitment. ○​ Types of love based on combinations of these components (e.g., romantic, companionate, fatuous love). Close Relationships: ​ Importance of trust, communication, and emotional support. ​ Role of mutual respect and shared goals in sustaining long-term relationships. Adult Marriage Life: ​ Phases of Marriage: ○​ Honeymoon phase. ○​ Settling into routine and family life. ○​ Mid-life adjustments. ​ Challenges in Marriage: ○​ Financial issues, infidelity, and communication breakdown. ​ Strategies for Success: ○​ Effective problem-solving, empathy, and commitment. This comprehensive note captures the key concepts and theories outlined in the syllabus, providing a clear framework for understanding social development. If you'd like, I can further elaborate on specific theories or concepts.