Anthropology, Psychology, & Sociology Exam Review PDF

Anthropology, Psychology, & Sociology Exam Review Anthropologist: Anthropologists study humans and their cultures, behaviors, and societies through various branches, including cultural, physical, biological, archaeological, and linguistic anthropology, using diverse research methods to understand h...

Anthropology, Psychology, & Sociology Exam Review Anthropologist: Anthropologists study humans and their cultures, behaviors, and societies through various branches, including cultural, physical, biological, archaeological, and linguistic anthropology, using diverse research methods to understand human experiences. Psychologist: Psychologists study human mind, behavior, emotions, and social interactions, working in clinical, counseling, educational, and research fields to assess and treat mental health disorders. Sociologist: Sociologists study society, behavior, and interactions using research methods like surveys, interviews, and observations to understand societal functions, norms, and factors influencing human behavior and society. Cognitive Process: Cognitive processes involve mental activities like perception, attention, memory, reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making, essential for understanding the world and engaging in complex tasks. Raymond Dart: Anatomy and paleontology. Best known for his discovery in 1924 of the first fossil found of Australopithecus africanus. In November 1924 Dart discovered the skull of a child head found in South Africa. Donald Johnson: Donald Johnson is an American paleoanthropologist best known for discovering the famous fossil known as "Lucy" in 1974. Lucy is one of the oldest and most complete hominid skeletons ever found, dating back about 3.2 million years. His work has significantly impacted our understanding of human ancestry and the evolutionary process. Physical Anthropology: -​ The study of humans as a biological species -​ Interested in the biological diversity of modern humans as well as the process of our evolution -​ Examining our biological characteristics, our evolution, variation, relationships, environment, and behavior Archeology: The study of human past through materials remains, with the aim of ordering and describing the events and explaining their meaning. Ethnography: -​ In depth description of a particular culture -​ Often lives with the culture they are studying of -​ Learn the language and gain truest Cultural Anthropology: Studying different cultures around the world. It looks at their beliefs. Practices, and social structures. Appreciate the difference between “new to you” culture and their own cultures. Documents honestly and accurately ( no bias) Depression: Mental health condition that causes you to feel hopeless and sad for a long time. It can lead to changes in sleep, appetite, and energy levels. Freud: The founder of psychoanalysis. He developed theories about the unconscious mind, the significance of dreams, and the importance of childhood experiences in shaping personality. He also invented the Id, ego and superego. Id: is the impulsive part of your personality that is driven by pleasure and repulsed by pain. superego: is the judgmental and morally correct part of your personality. Ego: is the conscious part of your personality that mediates between the id and the superego and makes decisions. Agents of Socialization: A person, group, or institution that influences personal attitudes, beliefs, and behavior in the process of socialization. Key agents include family, school, peers, and media. They help shape how individuals learn to interact and function in society. Skinner: Skinner is an American Psychologist known for his work in behaviorism. He developed the theory of operant Conditioning which explains how behaviors are influenced by rewards and punishments. Rewards help shape behavior and teach us what not to do. Negative reinforcement = punishment. Positive reinforcement = rewards. Pavlov: invented Classical Condition: he conducted experiment with his dog demonstrating that they could learn to associate a natural stimulus ( like the sound of a bell) with food, leading them to salivate in response to the bell alone. Maslow: Created the hierarchy of needs. This theory suggests that human motivation is organized in a hierarchy. Starting from basic psychological needs (food and water) to higher level needs like self- actualization and personal growth. Order from bottom to top of psychological needs, safety needs, love and belongings, Esteem and self actualization. Ethnology: Ethnology is the comparative and analytical study of cultures. It focuses on understanding the differences and similarities among various human societies, often examining aspects such as customs, beliefs, social structures, and practices. Ethnologists use data gathered from ethnography (the detailed study of individual cultures) to analyze cultural patterns and make generalizations about human behavior and social organization. Types of Love: -​ Game playing lovers: Fake, cheater, and liars -​ Possessive lovers: jealousy controlling and stocking. -​ Romantic lovers: kind and acceptance -​ Pragmatic lovers: reaching a goal, sensible -​ Altruistic lovers : patience, sympathy Sensation: When 5 senses are activated and are sending info/ signals to the brain. (sight, hearing, smell taste, and touch) Perception: when sensory signals are selected, organized and interpreted in the brain. How hominids are separated from other primates: Hominids are separated from other primates mainly by bipedalism, which allows them to walk on two legs. They also have larger brains relative to body size, leading to advanced problem-solving and social interaction. Hominids use a variety of tools, show complex social structures, and have a more varied diet, including cooked foods. These traits highlight their unique evolutionary path. Erik Erikson: Erik Erikson was a developmental psychologist who is best known for his theory of psychosocial development. He proposed that people go through eight stages of development from infancy to adulthood, each characterized by a specific conflict that needs to be resolved for healthy psychological growth. His work emphasizes the impact of social relationships and culture throughout a person's life. The Eight Stages: 1. Trust vs. Mistrust: Infants trust caregivers. 2. Autonomy vs. Shame: Toddlers seek independence. 3. Initiative vs. Guilt: Preschoolers explore. 4. Industry vs. Inferiority: Kids build skills. 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion: Teens find themselves. 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation: Young adults form relationships. 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation: Adults give back. 8. Integrity vs. Despair: Seniors reflect on life. Mental Illness: Mental illness refers to a variety of conditions that affect a person's emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It can impact how someone thinks, feels, and behaves, and can also affect their ability to function in daily life. Some common types of mental illnesses include anxiety disorders, depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia. Margaret Mead: Margaret Mead's work is particularly praised for her approach to social and cultural analysis. She illustrated how different social contexts influence individual development and behavior. Her research not only sheds light on social issues but also delves into topics like gender roles, adolescence, and cultural norms. Her ideas provided a new perspective in anthropological analysis. Charles Horton Cooley: Charles Horton Cooley was an American sociologist best known for his concept of the "looking-glass self," which explains how individuals develop their self-concept and self-identity through social interactions. He believed that people form their self-image based on how they think others perceive them, which involves three main components: imagining how we appear to others, imagining how others judge that appearance, and developing a self-feeling based on those judgments. Cooley also emphasized the importance of primary groups, such as family and close friends, in shaping an individual's socialization and identity. His work laid the foundation for symbolic interactionism, a major theoretical perspective in sociology that focuses on the meanings individuals derive from social interactions. Types of memories: Memory: The capacity to acquire, retain and recall knowledge and skills. Episodic Memory; ability to remember events for the past. Semantic memory: How to do things. Sensory Memory: This is the initial stage of memory where sensory information is stored for a very brief period, usually less than a second. It allows us to retain impressions of sensory stimuli. Short Term Memory: This type of memory holds a limited amount of information for a short duration, typically around 15 to 30 seconds. It’s where we process and manipulate information we are currently thinking about. Long term memory: This is the more permanent storage of information, where data can last from minutes to a lifetime. Long-term memory is further divided into: - Explicit Memory: This includes facts and events that can be consciously recalled, such as remembering a specific birthday. - Implicit Memory: This involves skills and tasks that are performed without conscious awareness, like riding a bike. Nature vs Nurture debate: The nature vs. nurture debate is a longstanding discussion that explores whether a person's development is influenced more by their genetics (nature) or their environment (nurture). Nature refers to the genetic factors and biological traits we inherit, while nurture encompasses the environmental influences, such as upbringing and culture. Most psychologists agree that both factors interact to shape who we are, and the debate focuses on the extent of each one's impact. Mary and Louis leakey: Mary and Louis Leakey were prominent archaeologists and paleoanthropologists known for their significant discoveries in East Africa, particularly in Tanzania. They played a crucial role in the study of human evolution. Mary Leakey is famous for discovering the Laetoli footprints in 1978, which provided evidence of early hominins walking upright. Louis Leakey, on the other hand, is known for his work at Olduvai Gorge, where he found some of the oldest hominid fossils, including those of Homo habilis and Homo erectus. Natural Selection: Natural selection is an important process through which species evolve over time. It was first proposed by Charles Darwin and is based on a few key principles: First, variation means that within a population, individuals have different traits or characteristics. Second, competition involves individuals competing for resources such as food, water, and shelter. Third, survival of the fittest refers to those individuals who are better adapted to their environment having a higher chance of surviving and reproducing. Finally, reproduction allows these advantageous traits to be passed on to their offspring. Case Study: A case study in sociology is a detailed examination of a specific individual, group, event, or community. It helps researchers understand complex social phenomena. Case studies can use qualitative methods like interviews and observations or quantitative methods such as surveys. Experiment: An experiment in sociology is a research method where researchers manipulate specific variables to understand their effects. It typically involves two groups: the experimental group, which receives a treatment, and the control group, which does not. This method helps in understanding social behavior and testing hypotheses. Survey: In sociology, a survey is a research method where researchers ask people about their thoughts, behaviors, and experiences. Surveys are often conducted through questionnaires or interviews, making it an effective way to gather data. This method helps researchers understand social trends, attitudes, and patterns. Surveys are typically used for quantitative analysis, providing insights into large groups. Social Science inquiry model: -​ Identify a Problem or Question -​ Develop a Hypothesis -​ Gathering data -​ Analyze data -​ Draw conclusion