Sociology Notes PDF

Defining sociology - Sociology is the scientific study of society. It uses systematic methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human societies and human social activities. - Sociology also studies the relationship between the i...

Defining sociology - Sociology is the scientific study of society. It uses systematic methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human societies and human social activities. - Sociology also studies the relationship between the individual and society and the institutions that mediate that relationship. - Society is dynamic and not stagnant. It is something that we're members of, that we produce and that produces us, that we make assumptions about and that represents the world around us. The taken for granted - To question the taken or granted, sociologists defamiliarize, denaturalize and historicization. - Defamiliarization involves looking at things that are familiar and trying to look at them as strange. The goal is to uncover the underlying assumptions and beliefs that shape our understanding of the world. The Nacirema example from the sources highlights how easily taken-for-granted assumptions can obscure our vision. - The Nacirema example in the sources uses a fictional tribe to illustrate the sociological concept of making the familiar strange.1 The Nacirema are described as having unusual rituals and beliefs, but upon closer examination, it becomes clear that the Nacirema are actually Americans.1 The name "Nacirema" is simply "American" spelled backwards, and their strange customs are just everyday American practices described in a way that makes them seem bizarre.1 - For instance, the Nacirema are described as being obsessed with rituals surrounding their mouths.1 They visit "holy-mouth-men" regularly and engage in complex ceremonies involving scraping and inserting magical substances into their mouths.1 These rituals are, of course, just a description of brushing teeth and visiting the dentist.1 - By presenting familiar practices in a strange and unfamiliar way, the Nacirema example helps us to see our own culture from a new perspective.1 It highlights how easily taken-for-granted assumptions can obscure our vision and make it difficult to see the underlying social forces that shape our lives.1 - The Nacirema example is a powerful tool for defamiliarization.1 It helps us to see that what we consider normal and natural is often just a product of our culture.1 This process of making the familiar strange is essential for sociological inquiry because it allows us to question our assumptions and to see the world in a new light. - Denaturalization involves examining how much of what we consider “natural” is actually socially produced. This process challenges the idea that social  arrangements are inevitable and pre determined, and helps us see things differently. - For instance, the gender pay gap is not natural but rather the product of social norms and structures. - Historicization recognises that all forms of social inequality have history. - the sources note that the ideal of a freestanding single-family home as the most desirable type of housing was made affordable for white families in the mid-twentieth century through federal mortgage policies, connecting this form of housing to middle-class respectability and ideal community life4. This historical perspective helps to explain how current patterns of housing inequality are rooted in past policies and practices. Structure & Agency Structure refers to the objective aspects of society that constrain, limit, and enable individual action. These can include social norms, laws, institutions, and economic systems.1 For example, the legal system is a structure that both constrains and enables individual action by defining what is permissible and punishable.2 Agency refers to the ability of individuals to act independently and make their own choices. Agency is not unlimited, as it is always shaped by the structures within which individuals exist.1 For instance, an individual's decision about where to live is influenced by their financial resources, the availability of housing in their preferred location, and discrimination based on factors such as race or family status.345 Non-Sociological Arguments Nature Argument: This argument claims that certain social phenomena are natural, inevitable, or determined by biology. Sociologists challenge this argument by showing how social phenomena are shaped by historical and cultural factors.1 For example, the idea that women are naturally more nurturing than men is a nature argument that has been used to justify gender inequality. Sociologists would point out that gender roles are socially constructed and vary widely across cultures and time periods. Individual Argument: This argument claims that social problems are caused by the failings of individuals, such as laziness, poor decision-making, or lack of motivation. Sociologists challenge this argument by examining the structural forces that shape individual choices and opportunities.6 For example, high rates of unemployment among youth might be attributed to individual laziness by some. However, sociologists would consider structural factors such as a lack of available jobs, inadequate education and training opportunities, and discrimination based on factors such as race or social background. Determinism (Biological, Economic) Biological determinism is the idea that human behavior is determined by biological factors, such as genes or hormones.7 Sociologists generally reject biological determinism, arguing that social factors play a much larger role in shaping human behavior. Economic determinism is the idea that economic forces determine the course of history and shape all aspects of society.8 While economic factors are certainly important, sociologists argue that other factors, such as culture, politics, and ideas, also play significant roles. Social Statics and Social Dynamics This concept, developed by Auguste Comte, compares sociological theories to physics.9 Social statics refers to the study of social order and stability, focusing on the structures and institutions that maintain social cohesion. Social dynamics refers to the study of social change and transformation, examining how societies evolve over time. The Sociological Imagination The sociological imagination is the ability to see the connections between personal experiences and larger social forces.610 It involves understanding how individual lives are shaped by historical events, social institutions, and cultural norms. The sociological imagination helps us to move beyond individualistic explanations for social problems and to see the need for social solutions.11 C. Wright Mills argued that to understand ourselves and our own fate, we must situate ourselves within our own period and social location.10 This means considering how our life chances are shaped by factors such as our level of education, parents' occupation, gender, race, and the historical period in which we live.10 The sociological imagination allows us to connect the "personal troubles of milieu" with "the public issues of social structure".12 Personal Troubles and Public Issues Personal troubles are problems that individuals experience in their own lives. These problems are often seen as private and personal.12 Public issues are problems that affect large numbers of people and are rooted in the structure of society.12 For example, unemployment can be both a personal trouble (one person losing their job) and a public issue (high rates of unemployment in a society). The sociological imagination helps us to see how personal troubles are often connected to public issues. For example, one person's unemployment may be due to individual factors, but high rates of unemployment are a public issue that requires social solutions. Three Approaches to Sociology Positivist Sociology: This approach seeks to understand society using scientific methods, emphasizing objectivity, quantitative data, and the search for generalizable laws of social behavior.11 Interpretive Sociology: This approach focuses on understanding the meanings that people attach to their actions and experiences. It emphasizes qualitative data, subjective experiences, and the importance of social context.13 Critical Sociology: This approach seeks to uncover and critique power relations in society, focusing on issues of inequality, oppression, and social justice. Critical sociologists aim to not only understand society but also to transform it.13 The sources note that very few sociologists exclusively utilize one approach. Many incorporate elements of each.14 Dyads and Triads Dyad: A social group consisting of two people. Dyads are the most basic form of social interaction and are characterized by their intimacy and fragility. For example, a marriage is a dyad.15 Triad: A social group consisting of three people. Triads are more complex than dyads, as they introduce the possibility of coalitions, mediation, and jealousy.15 For example, a family with two parents and one child is a triad. The Veil The Veil, a concept developed by W. E. B. Du Bois, is a metaphor for the way that racism and discrimination create a barrier between Black people and white people in America.16 The veil prevents white people from seeing Black people as fully human, and it prevents Black people from fully participating in American society. It refers to the separation and invisibility experienced by Black people due to racial prejudice and discrimination.16 The Color Line The Color Line, also a concept developed by W. E. B. Du Bois, refers to the social and political division between Black people and white people.17 Du Bois argued that the color line was the defining problem of the 20th century. The sources note that for Du Bois, the color line was more than just a physical marker, like the Mason-Dixon line; it was a division that extended across the USA and the entire world.17 Uses of Autobiography W. E. B. Du Bois used autobiography as a powerful political strategy and scientific tool.17 His autobiographical writings combined the soul of a poet with the intellect of a scientist, allowing him to explore the subjective experiences of Black people in America while also grounding his analysis in empirical observation.17 Second Sight The term "second sight" is not explicitly defined in the sources you provided. However, based on the context of Du Bois's work, it likely refers to the ability of Black people to see the world from both a Black perspective and a white perspective. This "double consciousness"16 gives Black people a unique understanding of the complexities of race and racism in America. It may also give them a critical insight into the workings of society that is not available to those who only see the world from a dominant perspective. Double Consciousness Double Consciousness, a term coined by W. E. B. Du Bois, describes the feeling of "two-ness" that Black Americans experience.16 It is the sense of always looking at oneself through the eyes of others, of measuring one's soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity.18 Black Americans are aware of their own identity and experiences, but they are also aware of how they are perceived by white society. This duality creates a sense of internal conflict and fragmentation.1618 Double Consciousness highlights the challenges of navigating a society where one's identity is constantly being questioned and devalued. Competence and Status Competence refers to an individual's ability to perform a task or role effectively. Status refers to an individual's social position or rank in society. The sources discuss how the perception of someone's competence can be influenced by their status. Tressie McMillan Cottom's hospital story illustrates this concept.19 Without knowing more about the specifics of her experience, it's impossible to comment further. The sources also mention that competence can be both "feeling" and "enacting".19 This suggests that competence is not only about possessing the necessary skills and knowledge but also about being perceived as competent by others. Controlling Images The term "controlling images" is not explicitly defined in the sources provided. However, based on the broader context of sociological theory, it likely refers to stereotypical or distorted representations of social groups that serve to maintain power relations and justify inequality. Controlling images often depict marginalized groups as inferior, deviant, or dangerous. They are used to rationalize discrimination, prejudice, and social exclusion. Measuring Poverty Measuring poverty involves determining the number of individuals or households living below a certain standard of living. There are various approaches to measuring poverty, each with its strengths and limitations.20 Absolute measures of poverty define a fixed poverty line based on the minimum income needed to meet basic needs. Relative measures of poverty define poverty in relation to the overall distribution of income in a society. In Canada, three main measures of poverty are used:21 Low Income Measure (LIM): A relative measure that sets the poverty line at half the median income. It's useful for international comparisons. Low-Income Cut-Offs (LICOs): Developed by Statistics Canada, LICOs consider the proportion of income spent on necessities. They identify households with significantly lower incomes than average. Market Basket Measure (MBM): Calculates the cost of a basket of essential goods and services, representing the income needed for a modest standard of living. The sources emphasize that all appropriate measures of poverty and low income are relative.20 This means that poverty is not simply about lacking a certain amount of money but is also about being excluded from the norms and opportunities of society. Relationship between Work & Consciousness In Marxist theory, the relationship between work and consciousness is central. Marx argues that the material conditions of production shape people's consciousness.8 This means that the way people work and the economic relations they are embedded in influence their thoughts, beliefs, and values. Alienated Labour: Marx believed that under capitalism, workers are alienated from their work, the products of their labor, themselves, and each other.22 This alienation stems from the fact that workers do not own the means of production and have little control over the labor process. As a result, work becomes a means to an end (earning a wage) rather than a fulfilling and creative activity. This can lead to feelings of powerlessness, meaninglessness, and isolation. Class Consciousness: Marx believed that the proletariat (working class) would eventually develop class consciousness, an awareness of their shared interests and exploitation under capitalism.23 This class consciousness would lead them to unite and overthrow the bourgeoisie (capitalist class), leading to a communist society where the means of production are owned collectively. Proletariat The proletariat is the working class under capitalism.2324 They are the people who sell their labor power to the bourgeoisie in exchange for wages. Marx argued that the proletariat is exploited by the bourgeoisie, as they produce more value than they are paid for. This surplus value is appropriated by the capitalists as profit. Marx saw the proletariat as a potentially revolutionary class.23 He believed that their shared experiences of exploitation and alienation would eventually lead them to unite and overthrow the capitalist system. Please let me know if you have any further questions or if there are any other terms you'd like me to explain. Here is an explanation of the sociological concepts you listed, drawing on the provided sources: Structure & Agency This concept explores the interplay between individual choices (agency) and the social forces (structures) that shape our lives. Structure refers to the patterned arrangements in society that influence or limit the choices and opportunities available to individuals. Agency is the capacity of individuals to act independently and to make their own free choices. The sources illustrate this tension. For example, McMillam Cottom highlights how Black women, despite their competence and agency, face systemic barriers (structural constraints) in healthcare and professional settings. Similarly, Sennett and Cobb discuss the “hidden injuries of class,” where working-class individuals' agency is limited by their social position, leading to feelings of inadequacy. Non-Sociological Arguments The sources don't explicitly define “non-sociological arguments.” However, they implicitly contrast sociological perspectives with individualistic or biologically deterministic explanations. For example, Durkheim's analysis of suicide rejects purely psychological explanations, arguing that social forces like integration and regulation play a crucial role in suicide rates. Determinism (Biological, Economic) Determinism suggests that individual behavior and social outcomes are predetermined by factors beyond individual control. Biological determinism attributes social phenomena to innate biological traits. The sources do not support this perspective. Economic determinism, a key concept in Marxist theory, argues that economic forces shape social relations and individual consciousness. Marx and Engels's Communist Manifesto analyzes how the capitalist mode of production creates class divisions and shapes the relationship between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Tranjan's The Tenant Class extends this analysis to the housing market, arguing that landlord-tenant relations are inherently exploitative due to the structure of private property ownership. Social Statics & Social Dynamics This concept, originating from Auguste Comte, distinguishes between the stable aspects of society (social statics) and the forces that drive social change (social dynamics). Social statics focuses on social structures, institutions, and norms that maintain order and stability. Social dynamics examines how societies change over time, considering factors like population growth, technological advancements, and social movements. Durkheim exemplifies social statics by studying the enduring influence of social facts on individual behavior. Marx and Engels's analysis of capitalism focuses on social dynamics, highlighting the historical forces that drive social transformation and the emergence of new class relations. The Sociological Imagination Coined by C. Wright Mills, the sociological imagination enables individuals to understand their personal experiences within a broader historical and social context. It involves seeing the connections between personal troubles (individual challenges) and public issues (larger societal problems). Mills argues that individuals often feel trapped by personal problems without recognizing the influence of social forces.  The sociological imagination allows us to “grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within society.” Personal Troubles & Public Issues This distinction is central to the sociological imagination. Personal troubles occur within the individual and their immediate relationships. Public issues involve matters that transcend local environments and affect the structure of society. For example, unemployment experienced by one person might be a personal trouble, but widespread unemployment reflects a public issue related to economic structures. Three Approaches to Sociology Positivist sociology emphasizes using scientific methods to study observable social facts and establish causal relationships. Durkheim exemplifies this approach. Interpretive sociology focuses on understanding the meanings individuals attach to their actions and social interactions. Weber's work on social action falls under this category. Critical sociology aims to uncover and critique power structures and inequalities within society. Marx, Du Bois, and feminist scholars like Liinamaa and Rogers exemplify this approach. Dyads & Triads These terms, often associated with Georg Simmel, refer to the smallest units of social groups. [This concept is not directly addressed in the sources.] Dyad : A group of two people, characterized by intimacy and instability. Triad : A group of three people, more stable than dyads but with more complex dynamics due to the potential for alliances and power imbalances. The Veil This concept, introduced by W. E. B. Du Bois in The Souls of Black Folk, represents the barrier that separates Black people from white people in a racially stratified society. The Veil symbolizes the invisibility and misrepresentation of Black lives in American society. It also refers to the double consciousness experienced by Black people, who must constantly navigate their identity through both their own self-perception and the lens of white society. The Colour Line This term, also used by Du Bois, refers to the racial division and hierarchy in society, particularly in the United States. It highlights the social and economic inequalities faced by Black people due to their race.  The Colour Line continues to shape social interactions and opportunities, as evidenced by the concept of “white space” discussed by Elijah Anderson. Uses of Autobiography The sources mention autobiography as a method for understanding social experiences but don't provide a detailed analysis of its uses. Sociologists often use autobiographical accounts to gain insights into individual experiences and how they are shaped by social forces. For example, McMillam Cottom's essay on "Dying to Be Competent" uses her personal experience of childbirth to illustrate the systemic racism faced by Black women in healthcare. Second Sight This term is not explicitly defined in the sources, but it likely refers to a deeper understanding or awareness that comes from experiencing a situation firsthand. For example, Du Bois's concept of double consciousness could be seen as a form of second sight, where Black people develop a unique perspective due to their experiences of living in a racially divided society. Double Consciousness This concept, central to Du Bois's work, describes the internal conflict experienced by Black people in a society that defines them as “other.” Black individuals must constantly navigate their identity through two lenses: their own self-perception and the negative stereotypes imposed by white society. This duality creates a sense of “twoness,” where Black people feel both American and “negro,” but never fully belonging to either category. Competence & Status These terms relate to social hierarchies and the ways individuals are evaluated within society. Competence refers to an individual's ability to perform tasks or roles effectively. Status is a socially defined position within a hierarchy, often associated with prestige, power, and privilege. The sources highlight how competence and status are often unequally distributed, leading to social inequalities. For example, McMillam Cottom argues that Black women face a constant pressure to prove their competence, even in fields where they are qualified, due to racial biases and stereotypes. Controlling Images This concept, used by Patricia Hill Collins, refers to stereotypes and representations that are used to justify the oppression of marginalized groups.  Controlling images often depict these groups as inferior, dangerous, or incapable, reinforcing existing power structures. McMillam Cottom suggests that platforms like LinkedIn, while seemingly neutral, perpetuate controlling images by forcing individuals to commodify their competence and conform to narrow professional standards. Measuring Poverty This concept is not explored in detail in the provided sources, but it's a crucial issue in social science research. Sociologists use various methods to measure poverty, including income-based measures, deprivation indices, and qualitative approaches. The choice of measurement can influence how poverty is defined and understood, impacting policy decisions and interventions. Relationship between Work & Consciousness This concept is central to Marxist theory, which argues that the mode of production shapes individuals' consciousness. Alienation, a key concept in Marx's work, describes the estrangement of workers from their labor, the products they create, and their own humanity under capitalist conditions. The repetitive and dehumanizing nature of work under capitalism can lead to a distorted sense of self and a diminished capacity for critical thought. Proletariat This term, from Marxist theory, refers to the working class in a capitalist society. The proletariat owns no means of production and must sell their labor to the bourgeoisie (the capitalist class) to survive. Marx and Engels argue that the proletariat is inherently exploited under capitalism, as they receive only a fraction of the value they create through their labor. They predict that the proletariat, driven by class consciousness, will eventually overthrow the bourgeoisie and establish a communist society based on collective ownership and equality. Here are explanations of the sociological concepts you listed, drawing on the provided excerpts from "Sociology - lectures review" and "sociology- readings": Value, Capitalism, and Class Surplus Value: In Marxist theory, surplus value is the excess of value produced by the labour of workers over the wages they are paid. The bourgeoisie, or capitalists, own the means of production and therefore take this surplus value. From an egalitarian viewpoint, everyone should benefit from the surplus value created by labour.  Contradictions of Capitalism: Marx argued that capitalism has fundamental internal contradictions that will eventually lead to its demise. These contradictions include: ○ Overproduction: Capitalism's drive for profit leads to the production of more goods than the market can absorb. ○ Diminishing Returns/Competition: Competition among capitalists drives down profits, forcing them to exploit workers further. ○ Built-in Obsolescence: Products are designed to become obsolete quickly, encouraging further consumption. ○ Logic of Infinite Growth and Expansion: Capitalism requires constant growth to survive, which is ultimately unsustainable. ○ Low Wages = Less Market: By paying workers low wages, capitalists limit their own consumer base, leading to underconsumption. Social Reproduction: This concept refers to the processes that maintain and reproduce social structures over time. While not explicitly defined in the sources, it often encompasses activities like unpaid care work, raising children, and maintaining social networks, which are essential for the functioning of society but often undervalued. Hidden Injuries of Class: This term, coined by Richard Sennett and Jonathan Cobb, describes the psychological and emotional harm inflicted on working-class individuals by their lower social and economic status. These injuries are often subtle and less visible than material deprivation but can be profoundly damaging to self-esteem and social mobility. Examples include feelings of inadequacy, shame, and self-blame for their lack of success. These feelings are often exacerbated by societal values that privilege wealth and professional success. Commodity Fetishism: Marx used this term to describe the tendency in capitalist societies to treat commodities as if they have inherent value, obscuring the social relations of production that went into creating them. This fetishism leads to the perception that the value of a commodity is determined by the market rather than by the labour of the workers who produced it. Use Value vs Exchange Value: Use value refers to the practical utility of a commodity, while exchange value refers to its market price. In a capitalist system, exchange value often takes precedence over use value, as commodities are primarily produced for profit rather than for their inherent usefulness. Zeitgeist: This German term, meaning "spirit of the times," refers to the dominant intellectual and cultural climate of a particular era. Marx believed that understanding the zeitgeist was essential for developing relevant social theory. Materialism/Idealism: Materialism emphasizes the role of material conditions in shaping social life, while idealism prioritizes ideas and consciousness. Marx was a materialist, arguing that the way we produce and consume goods fundamentally shapes our social relations and consciousness. Social Action and Objectivity Ideal Types: In Weberian sociology, ideal types are conceptual tools used to understand complex social phenomena. They are abstract models that capture the essential features of a phenomenon, but do not necessarily exist in their pure form in reality. For example, Weber identified four ideal types of social action, described below. Social Action: This refers to any action that is meaningfully oriented towards others. Weber argued that social action is the proper subject matter of sociology. ○ Value-Rational Action: Action guided by a belief in a particular value or ethical principle, regardless of its likelihood of success. ○ Instrumental Rational Action: Action oriented towards achieving a specific goal, weighing the costs and benefits of different means. Objectivity: This refers to the ability to observe and analyze the world without bias. However, the sources acknowledge that true objectivity is difficult, if not impossible, to achieve in sociology, as researchers are always situated within a particular social context and bring their own perspectives to their work. The Nacirema: This satirical essay by Horace Miner uses the example of a fictional tribe (the Nacirema, American spelled backwards) to highlight the biases and assumptions that can influence sociological research. By describing familiar American customs in an exotic and unfamiliar way, Miner demonstrates how "objectivity" can distort reality. Hierarchy of Credibility: This concept describes how certain individuals or groups are granted more credibility and authority than others in society. Those in positions of power, such as governments, policy makers, and corporations, often have a higher degree of credibility, even when their claims are biased. This hierarchy of credibility can make it difficult for sociologists to challenge dominant narratives and give voice to marginalized groups. Meaning and Classification Semiotics: The study of signs and symbols and how they create meaning. Semiotics analyzes the relationship between a signifier (the form of a sign) and the signified (the concept it represents), emphasizing that this connection is arbitrary and socially constructed. Signs and Levels of Signification: ○ Denotation: The literal or basic meaning of a sign. ○ Connotation: The more complex and culturally specific meanings associated with a sign. Symbolic Classification: This refers to the ways in which societies create categories and assign meaning to people, places, and things. Often, this  classification relies on binary oppositions, such as: ○ Marked/Unmarked Identities: The unmarked category is seen as the norm or default, while the marked category is seen as different or deviant. For example, in many societies, "male" is the unmarked gender category, while "female" is marked. ○ Sacred/Profane: The sacred is set apart as special and deserving of reverence, while the profane is ordinary and mundane. This distinction is central to Durkheim's theory of religion. Stigma and Identity Stigma: A negative social label that discredits an individual or group, based on a perceived difference or flaw. Goffman identified three main types of stigma: ○ Physical Deformity: Visible differences or disabilities. ○ Tribal Stigma: Association with a particular group, such as race, nation, or religion, that is viewed negatively. ○ Blemishes of Character: Perceived flaws in personality or morality, such as mental illness, addiction, or criminal history. Stigmatization: The social process of ascribing stigma to individuals or groups. This process can lead to discrimination, social exclusion, and internalized shame. Stigma & Self-Perception: Stigmatized individuals often internalize the negative beliefs associated with their stigma, leading to feelings of shame, inadequacy, and self-doubt. They may also engage in strategies to conceal or overcome their stigma, sometimes at great personal cost. Destigmatization: This refers to efforts to challenge and reduce the negative social meanings associated with stigma. It can involve: ○ Recognition and Self-Definition: Stigmatized individuals reclaiming their identities and challenging negative stereotypes. ○ Education and Contact: Increasing awareness and understanding of stigmatized groups to reduce prejudice. ○ Social and Policy Changes: Addressing the structural inequalities that contribute to stigma. Housing and Inequality House/Home: While a house refers simply to a physical dwelling, a home carries more complex social and emotional meanings. Home is often associated with feelings of belonging, safety, and identity. Rent / Ownership & Inequality: Access to housing is a major source of inequality in many societies. Homeownership is often seen as a marker of social status and financial security, while renters may face stigma, insecurity, and financial strain.  Affordable Housing: Housing is considered affordable when a household spends no more than 30% of its income on housing costs. Unfortunately, millions of households struggle to find affordable housing, leading to housing insecurity and other social problems. Rent Control: Government regulations that limit how much landlords can increase rent. Rent control is often seen as a way to protect tenants from excessive rent hikes and displacement, but it can also be controversial, with some arguing that it discourages investment in rental housing. Food Insecurity: A lack of consistent access to enough food for an active, healthy life. Food insecurity is often linked to housing insecurity, as households struggling to afford housing may also have limited resources for food. Housing Career: A concept that describes the sequence of housing states and events an individual experiences over their lifetime. This can include transitions such as leaving the parental home, renting for the first time, buying a home, and moving into assisted living. Housing careers are shaped by both individual factors (e.g., family dynamics, health) and macro-level structures (e.g., housing markets, welfare systems). Social Solidarity and Its Breakdown Collective Conscience/Conscience Collective: Durkheim used these terms to describe the shared beliefs, values, and norms that bind a society together. This collective conscience creates a sense of solidarity and social cohesion. Division of Labour: The specialization of tasks in a society. Durkheim argued that the division of labour has a profound impact on social solidarity. ○ Mechanical Solidarity: Characteristic of traditional societies with low division of labour. Solidarity is based on shared values and a strong collective conscience. ○ Organic Solidarity: Characteristic of modern societies with high division of labour. Solidarity is based on interdependence and the recognition that individuals need each other to survive. Functional Differentiation: The increasing specialization of institutions in modern societies [not mentioned in the sources]. Hyperspecialization: An extreme form of specialization, where individuals focus on very narrow tasks [not mentioned in the sources]. Collective Effervescence: Durkheim's term for the heightened emotional energy and feeling of unity that can occur in collective gatherings or rituals. This collective effervescence can reinforce social solidarity and strengthen the collective conscience.  Social Pathology: Durkheim used this term to describe social phenomena that threaten the stability or well-being of a society. He saw crime, suicide, and other forms of deviance as symptoms of social pathology, often stemming from anomie, or normlessness. Social Integration: The degree to which individuals are connected to and feel a sense of belonging in a society. Durkheim argued that social integration is essential for individual well-being and social stability. Moral Regulation: The constraints that society places on individual desires and behaviours through norms, values, and laws. Durkheim believed that moral regulation is necessary to prevent anomie and maintain social order. Social Solidarity: The bonds that unite individuals in a society. Durkheim identified two main types of social solidarity: mechanical and organic. Forms of Suicide: Durkheim identified four types of suicide, based on the levels of social integration and moral regulation in a society: ○ Altruistic Suicide: Motivated by a strong sense of duty to a group or cause. ○ Fatalistic Suicide: Resulting from excessive social control or oppression. ○ Egoistic Suicide: Resulting from weak social ties and a lack of belonging. ○ Anomic Suicide: Resulting from a lack of moral guidance and regulation, often during times of rapid social change. Anomie: A state of normlessness or social disorganization, where individuals feel a lack of purpose or direction. Durkheim argued that anomie is a major cause of social problems, including suicide. Social Isolation: A state of having limited social connections and interactions. Social isolation can have negative consequences for physical and mental health, and it can increase the risk of suicide. Social Spaces and Interactions Social Infrastructure: The physical spaces and institutions that facilitate social interaction and community building. Examples include libraries, parks, community centres, and public squares. Public Space: Open and accessible spaces where people from diverse backgrounds can come together. Public spaces play an important role in fostering social interaction, civic engagement, and a sense of community. Sociability: The pleasure and enjoyment derived from social interaction. Sociability is essential for individual well-being and social cohesion. Affordances of Sociability: The features of a social setting that encourage and facilitate positive interactions between strangers. For example, public ice rinks, with  their shared norms and informal atmosphere, can create affordances for sociability. Quotidian Carnivalesque: This term, inspired by Bakhtin's concept of the carnivalesque, describes the ways in which everyday social interactions can subvert or invert traditional hierarchies and norms. For example, in public ice rinks, people of different ages and skill levels interact in playful and egalitarian ways, temporarily suspending social distinctions. Pandemic-facilitated Interaction: While the sources do not provide a definition for this term, it likely refers to the ways in which the COVID-19 pandemic has altered social interactions and created new opportunities for connection, despite physical distancing measures. For instance, mask-wearing and other safety precautions have led to new forms of communication and a heightened awareness of interdependence. Please note that the concepts of "functional differentiation" and "hyperspecialization" were not explicitly discussed in the provided sources, and this explanation draws on general sociological knowledge. If you need more information on these specific concepts, further research may be necessary.