Biology 8120 Guideline for 2025 Midterm Studying PDF

Biology 8120: Guideline for 2025 Midterm Studying Intro to Bio Term Sheet: IntroBio (definitions and lists) Metric System Terms: length, volume and mass ○ Length: measure of how long something is or how far apart things are ○ Volume: the amount of space an object or a liquid occupies ○ Mass: the quantity of matter in an object Prefixes of metric unit (deci, centi, milli, kilo) ○ King Henry Died [s]sunday drinking chocolate milk! ○ K: kilo- (K) 1,000x ○ d: deci- (d) 1/10x ○ c: centi- (c) 1/100x ○ m: milli- (m) 1/1000x Know the standard unit of length, volume and mass ○ Metter ○ Liter ○ Gram Determine the volume of a liquid in a picture of a graduated cylinder ○ Graduated Cylinder ○ Used to measure the volume of liquids ○ The top plastic ring ALWAYS stays at the top to prevent breakage if it falls over Determine length of an object in a picture of a metric ruler ○ Metric Ruler ○ Used to measure the length of an object or the distance between two objects/places Scientific Thinking & Processes Terms: observations, data, quantitative data, qualitative data, variable, independent variable, dependent variable, constants, scientific theory Order of the steps of the scientific method 1. Chose a topic to investigate 2. Form a hypothesis 3. Design a experiment to test the hypothesis 4. Perform the experiment 5. Draw Conclusion from the result Identify quantitative vs qualitative data ○ Quantitative data that are numeric measurements Objective (the same, doesn't matter who measures) ○ Qualitative: data that is based on some quality of an observation Observation with your senses Identify dependent vs independent variables ○ Independent variable: a condition that is manipulated Should only be one ○ Dependent variable: experimental data collected through observation and measurements Value is dependent on the independent variable Write a proper hypothesis using an “If, then” statesman ○ “If_____[change in independent variable]__________, then __________ [change in dependent variable]___________.” Can scientific data “prove” a hypothesis? ○ Determine whether the experiment's results support the hypothesis or reject the hypothesis Graphing Terms: 3 different types of graphs (line, bar, circle), type of relationship shown on a line graph (direct, indirect, constant) When each of the 3 different types of graphs (line, bar, circle) should be used ○ Line Graph Used when graphing data that shows continuous change Shows relationship between variables Information shown as a series of points are connected to form a line ○ Bar Graph Used when graphing data that are in disconnected groups Show a comparison of multiple objects ○ Circle/Pie Graph Used to compare parts of a whole Full circle represents 100% of what you are looking at Included as title and what each parts mean Determine which variable (dependent or independent) is placed on the x-axis and the y-axis ○ Independent variable Should be placed on the horizontal axis x axis ○ Dependent variable Should be placed on the vertical y-axis Biology: the scientific study of all forms of life Organism: any individual living thing Biosphere: all living things and the part of Earth & the atmosphere where they exist Biodiversity: variety of life Species: one particular type of living organism that can reproduce by interbreeding and producing fertile offspring List the 4 Characteristics All Organisms Share 1. Cells 2. Need for energy 3. Response to environment 4. Reproduction and development Cell: the basic unit of life Energy: the ability to cause a change or do work Metabolism: all of the chemical processes that build up or break down materials Heterotrophs (consumers): organisms that obtain their energy by eating other living or once-living resources Autotrophs (producers): organisms that get their energy from nonliving resources Stimulus: something that causes a physiological response Reproduction: a process that makes new organisms from parents organisms List the 4 Unifying Themes of Biology: 1. All levels of life have systems of related parts 2. Structure and function are related in biology 3. Organisms must maintain homeostasis to survive in diverse environments 4. Evolution explains the unity and diversity of life Ecosystem: all the living organisms and nonliving components (climate, soil, water, rocks, etc.) in a particular geographic area Community: a group of different species that live together in the same geographic area Population: a group of individuals of the same species living in the same geographic area Homeostasis: is the maintenance of constant internal conditions in an organism Evolution: the change in living things over time Adaptation: a beneficial inherited trait that is passed to future generations Chemistry of Life-Parts 1 & 2 Term Sheet: ChemLife_Part 1 Term Sheet: ChemLife_Part 2 4 elements that make up 96% of the mass of the human body ○ Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen Importance of trace elements ○ Essential for our survival Are body would not survive without then Arrangement of an atom (location of sub particles (electron, proton, neutron)) ○ Neutrons: Particles that have no charge ○ Protons: Positively charged particles ○ Electrons: Negatively charged particles 2 inner shell 8 outer shell 2:8:8 Number of protons compared to number of electrons in an atom ○ An atom has an equal number of protons and electrons An atom has no net charge When is an atom most stable? ○ An atom is the most stable when its valence shell is filled with the maximum number of electrons Maximum number of electrons that can fit in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd energy levels ○ 1st Shell: 2 ○ 2nd Shell: 8 ○ 3rd Shell: 8 What is an isotope? ○ A variation in the number of neutrons Ions, cations, and anion (what they are, what their charge is, did they lose or gain an electron) ○ Anino: negative ion When an electron is grained a negative charge is resulted ○ Cation: Positive ion When an electron is lost, a positive charge results Ions form when atoms gain or lose electrons ○ Ion: an atom that has gained or lost one of more electrons Goal is to fill the valence shell The atom that gains/loses electron will gain a charge Different types of bonds (ionic bonds, covalent bonds, nonpolar covalent bonds, polar covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds) (what they are, when they form, strength of bond) ○ Ionic Bond Chemical bonds form through the electrical attraction of two oppositely charged ions ○ Covalent bond Chemicals bonds that forms when two atoms share one or more pairs of valence shell electrons ○ Nonpolar covalent bond Formed when the atoms share pairs of electrons in a covalent bonds equally ○ Polar covalent bond Formed when atoms share pair of electron n a coolant bond unequally ○ Hydrogen bond Attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom Visually identify covalent bonds and H-bonds within a water molecule and between 2 water molecules - Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass - Atom: the smallest basic unit of life - Element: a substance composed of one particular type of atom (can’t be broken down by a simple ordinary reaction) - Neutrons: Particles that have no charge - Protons: Particles that have a positive charge - Electrons: Particle that have a negative charge - Valence shell: The outer shell - Compound: a substance made of atoms of different elements - Ion: an atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons - Cation: Lost a electron (positively charge) - Anion: Gained a electron (Negative charge) - Ionic bond: Chemical bonds through the attraction between two oppositely charged atoms - Covalent bond: Bonds that form when atoms share electrons in the valence shell - Molecule: 2 or more molecules held together by covalent bonds - Single bond: the sharing of one pair of electrons - Double bond: the sharing of two pairs of electrons - Nonpolar molecule: a molecule with no changed regions - Polar molecule: a molecule with a slightly negative and positive region - Hydrogen bond: attraction between slightly negative and positive atoms (commonly H and a O or N) - Cohesion: the attractions of molecules of the same substance - Adhesion: the attraction of molecule of a different substance - Solution: a mixture of 2 or more substances - Solvent: substance doing the dissolving - Solute: substance being dissolved - Concentration: the amount of solute dissolved in a solvent Chemistry of Life-Parts 3, 4, and ; 5 ○ Term Sheet: ChemLife_Part 3 ○ Term Sheet: ChemLife_Part 4 ○ Term Sheet: ChemLife_Part 5 Identify different types of structural arrangements of carbon-based molecules (straight chain, branched chain, ring) ○ \ Dehydration reactions ○ A reaction in which two monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecule Covalent bond ○ Builds polymer chain Hydrolysis reactions ○ A reaction in which polymers are broken down by the addition of a water molecule Breaks down a polymer chain 4 main types of C-based molecules found in living things (the table in your notes is helpful ○ Carbohydrates ○ Proteins ○ Lipids ○ Nucleic Acid Macromolecule Monomer Polomer Function Carbohydrate Monosaccharides (Simple Polysaccharide Starch- a storage Sugar) ↳ Many molecules polysaccharide ↳ composed of carbon, bonded together composed of glucose hydrogen and oxygen ↳ Starch molecules found in ↳ Simplest type of carb. ↳ Glycogen plants ↳ 1:2:1 ratio ↳ Cellulose Glycogen- a storage ↳ Chitin polysaccharide composed of glucose molecules found in animals Cellulose- a structural polysaccharide composed of glucose that forms a cell wall in plant cells Chitin- A structural polysaccharide used by insects to build a exoskeleton Lipids Triglycerides Phospholipid Steroid Made of chains of A lipid made of 3 fatty acids A lipid made up of A lipid with a carbon Carbon atoms bonded to glycerol glycerol, 2 fatty acid skeleton, containing 4 bonded to ↳ form from exes glucose and a Phosphate fused rings Hydrogen and ↳ Important for energy Polar “P” head ↳ Cholesterol- an some Oxygen storage NonPolar “FA” tail important steroid DOES NOT HAVE A TRUE MONOMER Proteins Amino Acid Polypeptide Structural Carbon based ↳ monomer of protein that Many amino acids ↳Keratin, Collagen molecules are the contains a carbon bound to bonded together Contractile foundation of life a amino group ↳20 different amino Defensive ↳some hydrophobic other acids are used to Signal hydrophobic build proteins Receptor ↳can link to form other ↳ 12 made in Transfer and Storage polymers human body Enzymatic ↳ Others found in food Nucleic Acid Nucleotide Polynucleotide DNA: 2 ↳ monomer of nucleic ↳ Many nucleotides polynucleotides acids that contain a bonded together bonded together phosphate group, a sugar, RNA: 1 and a nitrogen base polynucleotide ↳ can link together to form polymers C6H12O6 Isomer ○ The most common monosaccharide Glucose Galactose Fructose Visually identify a monosaccharide, fatty acid, amino acid, and nucleotide Monosaccharide Amino Acid Fatty Acid Nucleoide Structure of different lipids (triglyceride, phospholipid, steroid) ○ Triglyceride: 3 fatty acids bonded to glycerol Forms from excess glucose Important for energy storage Ex: oily coating on aquatic birds feather ○ Phospholipid: A lipid made up of glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and a phosphate group Makes up the cell membrane “Polar” phosphate head (Hydrophilic) “Nonpolar” fatty acid tail (Hydrophobic) ○ Steroid: a lipid with a carbon skeleton containing 4 fused rings Ex: Steroid hormone regulates body's response to stress Contos sexually development and the reproductive system Saturated vs unsaturated fatty acids (what they are, visually distinguish between the two, liquid or solid at room temperature?) ○ Saturated fatty acid: (Straight Chain) fatty acids with the maximum number of hydrogen atoms All carbon bonds are single bonds Straight hydrocarbon chain → packed tight → solid fat ○ Unsaturated fatty acid: (Branched Chain) fatty acids with fewer than the maximum number of hydrogen atom At least one carbon – carbon double bond Kinky tail → can’t pack tightly → oil How many amino acids are used to build proteins? ○ 20 different amino acids are used to build proteins 12 come from human body Others come from food Meat, beans, nuts Peptide bond ○ Covalent bond between amino acids ○ Formed through dehydration reactions Denatured ○ If the shape of a protein is altered, the protein can not longer function The shape of a protein determines its function 4 levels of protein structure ○ Primary Protein Structure: sequence of a chain of amino acid Proteins differ in the number and order of amino acids ○ Secondary Protein Structure: coiling or folding of a polypeptide due to hydrogen-bonding between amino acids ○ Tertiary Protein Structure: 3-D folding pattern of a protein due to side chain interactions ○ Quaternary Protein Structure: association between two or more polypeptide chain within on protein Some proteins are good with one level other need many Visually identify substrates, substrate-enzyme complex, and products in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction Organic compounds: - Isomers: same molecular format different structures - Monomer: individual subunit - Polymer: many monomers linked together - Dehydration reaction: two monomers bonded together, loss of water - Hydrolysis reaction: polymer broken apart because of addition of water CARBOHYDRATEs - Monosaccharide: monomer of carbohydrate - C6H1206 Isomers: glucose, galactose, fructose - Disaccharide: two monosaccharides bonded together - Polysaccharide: many monosaccharides bonded together - Starch: storage polysaccharide composed of glucose found in plants - Glycogen: storage polysaccharide composed of glucose found in animal - Cellulose: structural polysaccharide composed of glucose that forms cell wall - Chitin: Structural polysaccharide used by insects to form exoskeleton LIPIDS - Triglyceride: a lipid made of 3 fatty acids bonded to a phosphate - Fatty acid: chain of carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms with a carboxyl group at the end - Saturated fatty acid: fatty acid with the maximum amount of hydrogen atoms (all single bonds) - Unsaturated fatty acid: fatty acid with fewer than minimum due to at least one carbon - carbon bond - Phospholipid: a lipid made of glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and a phosphate group - Steroid: a lipid with a carbon skelton containing 4 fused rings - Cholesterol: sterolid that plays a role in the stability of animals and the male hormone PROTEINS - Amino acid: monomer of protein that contain a carbon bound to a amino group, carboxyl group, and a side group - Polypeptide: many amino acids bonded together - Protein: 1 or more polypeptides bonded together - Peptide bond: covalent bonds of amino acids - Primary protein structure: sequence of chain of amino acids - Secondary protein structure:coiling or folding of a polypeptide due to hydrogen bonding between amino acids - Tertiary protein structure: 3-D folding pattern of a protein due to side chain interactions - Quaternary protein structure: association between two or more polypeptides chains within one protein NUCLEIC ACIDS - Nucleotide: monomer of amino acids that contains a phosphate group, a sugar and a nitrogen containing base - Polynucleotide: many nucleotide bonded together - Nucleic acid: 1 or more polynucleotides bonded together - Reactants: substance changed during chemical reactions - Products: Substance made by chemical reactions - Equilibrium: condition in which reactants and products of a chemical reaction performed at the same rate - Activation energy: the amount of energy needed to start a chemical reaction - Exothermic reactions: reactions that release more energy - Endothermic reactions: reactions that absorb more energy - Catalyst: substance that speed up the rate of a chemical reaction - Enzyme: a catalyst for a chemical reaction in living things - Substrate: specific reactant that an enzyme works on - Active site: Substrate bonding sit on an enzyme Cell Structure and Function-Part 1 3 principles of the Cell Theory ○ All organisms are made of cells ○ All existing cells are produced by other living things ○ The cell is the basic unit of life Characteristics of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells Characteristics Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Surrounded by cell membrane ✓ ✓ Contains Cytoplasm ✓ ✓ Contains a Nucleus ✓ Contains Membrane-bound organelles ✓ Tends to be microscopic ✓ ✓ Either single-celled or multicellular ✓ Only Single-celled ✓ Types of organisms that are eukaryotic and those that are prokaryotic ○ Prokaryotic: Bacteria, Archeara ○ Eukaryotic: Protista, Fungi, Plants, Animals Label the Parts of the Microscope and know their function Eyepiece: Contains a magnifying lens; objects are viewed through this part Body Tube: Separates the lens in the eyepieces from the objective lenses below Revolving nosepiece: Holds and turn the objective into viewing position Objective: Each contain a lens with a certain power of magnification Coarse adjustment: Focuses the image when viewed through scanning and low powers lenses Fine Adjustment: Sharpens the image when viewed through the high power lens Stage: Platform used to support the microscope Stage Clip: Holds the microscope slide in place Light Source: Illuminates specimen being viewed Diaphragm: Regulates the amount of light that passes through the slide and into the lens Arm: Supports the body above the stage Base: Supports the microscope Calculate total magnification when given the eyepiece and objective magnifications ○ Eyepiece x Objective Lens = Total magnification Eyepiece 10x Scanning objective 4x (40x) Low power objective 10x (100x) High power objective 40x (400x) ` Cell Structure and Function-Part 2 All cell components/organelles and their functions and features ○ Cytoskeleton: Internal structure of the cell Network of long fibers of proteins that supports and shapes the cell Organisms involved in making and processing proteins ○ Nucleus: Control center Stores and protects genetic information Site of DNA and RNA synthesis Nuclear Envelope (Nuclear membrane): encloses cell’s DNA Double Membrane: with pores – protects DNA while allowing material to pass in and out Nucleolus – region where ribosomes are assembled ○ Ribosomes – “site of protein synthesis” Link amino acids together to form polypeptides (proteins) Made in the nucleus → pass through nuclear pores into the cytoplasm (where protein synthesis occurs) ○ Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Biosynthetic Factory Large interconnected network of folded membranes Surface of the ER Interior (Lumen) of the ER ○ Vesicles Small, membrane –bound sacs that hold materials Isolate specific molecules and transport them to different parts of the cell Short lived – formed and recycled as needed Formed by pinching off the membrane around materials ○ Golgi Apparatus: Modification and shipping center Loosely layered stacks of membrane–enclosed spaces that modify, package and deliver proteins and other cell products Modifies proteins as they go from one side to the other and result in package proteins ○ Stored for later use ○ Transport to other organelles ○ Carried to the membrane secreted out of the cell ○ Mitocondria: Powerhouse Generates energy for the cell Converts food molecules into useable energy Have their own ribosomes and DNA Double membrane ○ Vacuoles Fluid–filled sacs used for the storage of materials needed by a cell Animals have many small Plants have a central vacuole Filled with a watery fluid Strengths the cell and supports the plant ○ Lysosomes: defense and recycling center Membranous sacs containing digestive enzymes Digest foreign material or worn-out cell parts and rebuke the brown down materials ○ Centrosome: region of cytoplasm that produces microtubules Contains a pair of centrioles ○ Centrioles: Made of short microtubules arranged in a circle May play a role in animal ce division Not found in plants ○ Cell wall Provides protection, support and shape to the cell Can adhere to other cell walls to help support an entire organism Not found in animal cells ○ Chloroplast: Convert solar energy to chemical energy (photosynthesis) Double membrane Have there own ribosomes and DNA Not found in Animals Endosymbiosis-Class Handout Endosymbiosis: Is a relationship in which one organism lives within the body of another – with both organisms benefiting. Endosymbiosis Theory: The mitochondria and chloroplasts were once simple prokaryotic cells that were engulfed by larger prokaryotes around 1.5 billion years ago. What evidence supports the theory of endosymbiosis in relation to the mitochondria and chloroplasts ○ The mitochondria and chloroplast have their own DNA, and Ribosomes. They also are the same size as prokaryotes. ○ If the prokaryotes engulfed them, they would have a similar structure. Cell Structure and Function-Parts 3, 4 & 5 Term Sheet: CellStr&Fxn_Part 3 Term Sheet: CellStr&Fxn_Part 4 Term Sheet: CellStr&Fxn_Part 5 Characteristics/features of the cell membrane ○ The cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipids that… From a boundary between the cell and outside environment Controls the passage of materials in and out of the cell The cell membrane is composed of two layers Function of the molecules embedded in the cell membrane (proteins, sugars, cholesterol) ○ Cholesterol: Strengthens the cell membrane and slowed its movement ○ Protein: Help materials cross the cell membrane and can act as receptors ○ Carbohydrates (sugars): help identify different cell types Pass/Activ Energy? Concentration Materials Transport Gradient? ⇡↓ Transported Proteins? Simple Passive No Yes Small No Diffusion Down Non Polar Facilitated Passive No Yes Small Yes Diffusion Down Polar Osmosis Passive No Yes Small No Down Polar Water Active Active Yes No Small Yes Transport Up Features of endocytosis, pinocytosis, phagocytosis, exocytosis ○ Endocytosis: Uptake of liquid or large molecules into a cell by inward folding movement of the cell membrane (Vesicular Transport) Pinocytosis (“cell drinking”): uptake of droplets of a fluids into a cell Phagocytosis (“cell eating”): uptake of a solid particle into a cell ○ Exocytosis: release of liquids or large molecules out of a cell by the fusion of a vesicle with the membrane (Vesicular Transport) Hypertonic, Hypotonic, and Isotonic solutions ○ Hypotonic: Grow (like a hippO) ○ Hypertonic: Shrink ○ Isotonic: Stay the same For a picture/description of a cell and the surrounding solution given, be able to identify where high/low solute concentration, high/low water concentration, direction of molecule movement depending on type of transport ○ High Solute concentration = Low Water Concentration ○ Low Solute Concentration = High Water Concentration Be able to compare/contrast passive transport and active transport (th venn diagram in your notes is helpful) ○ Passive Transport Energy Not Required Goes down concentration gradient Transport proteins sometimes required (facilitated) ○ Active Transport Energy Required Goes up Concentration Gradient Transport protein always required Both: Transport small molecules across cell membrane - Fluid Mosaic Model: the model that describes the arrangement and movement of the molecules that make up the cell membrane - Selective Permeability: properties that allowed some by not all materials to cross the cell membrane - Passive transport: movement of molecules across a cell membrane without energy input - Concentration gradient: the difference in the concentration of a substance from one location to another - Diffusion: movement of dissolved molecules in a fluids or has from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration - Facilitated diffusion: diffusion of molecules across a cell membrane through transport proteins - Osmosis: movement of water molecules across a semipermeable membrane from a region of high water concentration to a region of lower water concentration - Isotonic solution: a solution that has the same concentration of dissolved particles - Hypertonic solution: a solution that has more solutes than the cell - Hypotonic solution: a solute has fewer solutes than the cell - Active transport: energy requiring movement of molecules from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher - Endocytosis: uptake of liquids or large molecules into a cell - Receptor: protein that detects a signal molecule and performs an actions - Ligand: the specific molecule a receptor recognizes and binds to - Pinocytosis: uptake of droplets of a fluid into a cell - Phagocytosis: uptake of a solid particle into the cell - Exocytosis: release of liquids or large molecule out of a cell Cells & Energy-Part 1 & Part 2 ○ Term Sheet: Cells&Energy_Part 1 ○ Term Sheet: Cells&Energy_Part 2 ATP (what it is, what it does, its structure) ○ High energy molecule that can be used within the cell. Adocine, Ribose, 3 phosphate groups. ADP (what it is, what it does, its structure) ○ Low energy molecule that can be converted into ATP. Formation of ATP (what is required for its formation, what is the formation process called, where does the energy required for the reaction come from?) ○ It is called phosphorylation. ADP + Phosphate + Energy = ADP Breakdown of ATP (what molecule results from the breakdown, what is the process called, where does the energy that is released go?) ○ It is called dephosphorylation. ADP is the breakdown of ATP. It goes to different cellular processes. Food sources of energy (what are the most important energy sources in foods you eat, which macromolecule produces the most ATP, which macromolecule is broken down most commonly, which macromolecule do we not want to breakdown) ○ Carbohydrates and lipids are the main energy sources. Carbohydrates produce the most ATP and are most commonly broken down. We do not want protein to be broken down. 3 components of the chloroplast organelle ○ Thylakoid, Stroma, and the Grama. Location of pigments in the chloroplast ○ They are located in the Thylakoid. What do pigments do? Why does a leaf visually look the color that does to us? Why do leaves change color? ○ Pigments absorb a specific amount of wavelength from the sun. Leafs look a certain color because they absorb a certain amount of one wavelength. In the fall leaves stop filtering out the green wavelengths making the leaves change colors. Determine light properties from a picture (absorbed, transmitted, reflected) ○ Absorbed: light taken in ○ Transmitted: light passes through ○ Reflected: bounces off Overall equation of photosynthesis (using proper capitalization, coefficients & subscripts; be able to identify the reactants and the products) ○ 6CO2 + 6H2O → → → C6H12O6 + 6O2 What is the major purpose of the two phases of photosynthesis and where do each occur inside the chloroplast? ○ Light dependent reaction Capture energy from sunlight Occurs in the thylakoid membranes Light independent reactions (Calvin Cycle) Makes sugar Occurs in the stroma Light-dependent reactions (what is required, what is produced, what is photolysis (the water splitting process of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis) and why is it important) ○ It requires sunlight and water and produces NADPH, ADP and oxygen. Photolysis is the splitting of water molecules, to replace lost electrons. How are the light-dependent reactions related to the light-independent reactions? ○ Light dependent reactions give the light energy needed for the light independent reactions to make sugar. Calvin cycle (what is required, where does the energy it requires come from, how many times does the cycle have to occur to produce 1 glucose molecule) CO2 , ATP and NADPH are required. The energy that is required comes from ATP and NADPH. The cycle repeats 6 times. Chemical Energy: energy stored in the bonds of chemical compounds Metabolism: all of the chemical processes that build up or break down materials Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): high-energy molecule that contains, within its bonds, energy that cells can use Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP): low-energy molecule that can be converted to ATP Endothermic Reaction: reactions that absorb more energy than they release Exothermic Reaction: reactions that release more energy than they absorb Heterotrophs (consumers): (consumers): organism that get their energy by eating other living or once living resources Autotrophs (producers): producers): organism that get their energy from nonliving resources Chemosynthesis: process by which organisms use chemical as an energy source to make energy storing carbon based molecules to be broken down for the generation of ATP Photosynthesis: process by which organism use sunlight as an energy source/ to make energy source to make energy-storing carbon based molecules to be broken down for the generation of ATP Stroma: fluid that surrounds the grana inside the chloroplasts Grana: stacks of thylakoids Thylakoids: sacs enclosed by membranes that contain pigments Pigments: molecules that absorb specific wavelength of sunlight Chlorophyll: most common pigment in chloroplasts Wavelength: the distance between the crests of two adjacent waves Photon: a fixed quantity of light energy Light Dependent 1. Energy in the sunlight is transferred to elections (e-) and they become energized ○ Light energy from the sun is absorbed by chlorophyll molecules which excited or energizes electrons (e-) 2. High energized electrons are passed from chlorophyll to the “electron transport chain” (ETC)–a series of proteins embedded in the thylakoid membrane 3. ATP is produced ○ As the energized electron is passed from protein to protein in the ETC, the electron loses a little bit of energy ○ The energy is used to ultimately form ATP from ADP ADP + P + Energy → ATP ○ ATP transfers the energy to the calvin cycle (Light independent reactions) in the stroma 4. NADPH is produced ○ At the end of the ETC, the electron is still energized ○ There energized electrons and H+ are accepted by NADP+ (electron carrier molecule) to form NADPH NADP+ + 2e- + H+ → NADPH ○ NADPH transfers the energy to the Calvin cycle (light independent reactions) in the stroma 5. Photolysis ○ To replace the lose electrons from chlorophyll light energy splits molecule of water – “photolysis” ○ H2O → 2H+ + ½ O2 + 2e- 2H+ - Used to form NADPH ½ O2 - Combines with another O atoms and released into air; Oxygen we breath 2e- - replace lost e’ from chlorophyll Light independent reactions (Calvin Cycle) “Synthesis”” part of photosynthesis Requires ○ (1) CO2 Take place in the stroma Use energy stored in ATP and NADPH from the first phase of photosynthesis (light dependent reactions) to build a sugar (C6H1206) in a cycle of chemical reactions ○ Cycle occurs 6 times to make 1 sugar! ○ This sugar stores some of the energy originally captured from the sunlight

Biology 8120 Guideline for 2025 Midterm Studying PDF

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