Units 4.5-4.8 Notes w_ partners PDF

4.5 Maritime Empires Develop Economic Strategies: ​ 17th century Europeans measured the wealth in gold and silver that it had in its coffers. The use of strategies designed to sell as many goods possible to other countries to obtain maximum profits (gold and silver). Countries would...

4.5 Maritime Empires Develop Economic Strategies: ​ 17th century Europeans measured the wealth in gold and silver that it had in its coffers. The use of strategies designed to sell as many goods possible to other countries to obtain maximum profits (gold and silver). Countries would also spend as little of their precious metal as they could. ​ The capital was full of material wealth available in order to produce more, in Western Europe grew as entrepreneurs to laborers, putting them at a better position to become consumers. Despite restrictions on the Church, lending Money at high rates of interest became common. Actual wealth increased with gold and silver production in the Western Hemisphere. Commercial Revolution: ​ Affected all regions, resulted from -​ The development of European oversea colonies -​ The opening of new ocean trade routes -​ Population growth -​ Partly by the increased amount of gold and silver that was mined and put in circulation. -​ The high rate of inflation in the 16th and early 17th century was called the price Revolution. ​ The formation of Joint-stock companies, owned by investors who bought stock or charred them, resulted in extending aid in the global economy. The Dutch, England and French developed joint stock companies in the 17th century, including the East India Company in 1600 and the Dutch East India Company in 1602. Dutch East India Company made profits in the Spice Islands and Southeast Asia the most. ​ Limited liability: the principle that an investor isn’t responsible for a company’s debts or other liabilities beyond that amount of investment, making investing safer. Developing European Middle class had capital to invest in making a successful business. ​ In Spain the government did most of the investing itself through the development of Maritime empires, which allowed them to continue exploration as well as ventures to colonize and develop resources of distant lands with limited risk to investors. Commerce and Finance: ​ The Dutch were the commercial middlemen of Europe, set up/maintained trade routes to Latin America, North America, South Africa, and indonesia. Their ships were faster and lighter than rivals for the 17th century, and an early trade advantage. ​ Pioneers in finance, the Dutch had a stock exchange (as early as 1602). By 1609 the Bank of Amsterdam traded internationally. The Dutch:  -​ Standard of living was the highest in Europe with goods such as diamonds, linen, pottery, and tulip bulbs passed through the hands of Dutch traders. ​ Early 18th century, both (france and England) fell victim to speculative financial schemes. In other words financial bubbles: the scheme based on the sale of shares to investors who were promised a certain return on their investment. ​ After a frenzy of buying that increased the price of shares, the bubble exploded, investors lost money, resulting in many reports of bankruptcy, and inflicting widespread damage to the economy. Triangle Trade: ​ Enslaved Africans became part of a complex Atlantic trading system due to the Europeans desire for those individuals in the Americas coupled with Portugal’s discoveries. ​ A ship carried European manufactured goods such as firearms to West Africa and from there received enslaved Africans to the Americas. Which then would be filled with Sugar, tobacco to take to Europe. ​ Sugar was the most profitable commodity from the Americas, by 1700 Caribbean Sugar production and rum were financing fortunes in Britain and to a lesser extent in France and the Netherlands. Rivalries for the indian Ocean Trade: ​ Europe stumbled on the Americas, trade over the Atlantic Ocean became significant, however states proceeded to vie for control of trade routes on the Indian Ocean as well. ​ Muslim and Venetian force in naval battle in the Arabian Sea in 1509 over controlling trade. Ended up meeting a different fate when they attempted to conquer Moroccan Forces in a battle on land in 1578. ​ Morocco looked inland to capture the riches of the Songhai kingdom despite the prohibition of waging wars on another Muslim state. Attacking with thousands of soldiers, camels and horses as well as 8 cannons and other firearms which forces traveled months to reach Songhai. 1590, near Gao, the Songhai (despite the great numbers of fighters) were overpowered by the firearms. As A Result, the Spanish and Portuguese soon overtook much of this territory. Change and Continuities in Trade Networks: ​ New Monopolies: 11 -​ On the way these patterns of trade were maintained through monopolies chartered by European rulers. -​ Granted certain merchants (through joint-stock companies mainly) or the government itself the exclusive right to trade.  -​ The Spanish government established a monopoly first over all the domestic tobacco grown and then all over in the American colonies. The profits produced greatly enriched the government and the income in Spain made up about ⅓ total revenue. ​ Outgoing Regional Markets: -​ Traditional regional markets flourished in Afro-Eurasia, however improved shipping offered merchants the opportunity to increase the volume of products. Increasing output of peasant and artisan labor, wool and linen from Western Europe, cotton from India, and silk from China. Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade: ​ Greatly weakened African kingdoms such as Kongo. ​ Loss in people slowed population growth. ​ Trade competition led to violence among their societies but also made African slave-raiding kingdoms economically dependent on goods from Europe. Some of these areas were such as Dahomey and Oyo. This dependent behavior led to European conquest and imperialism as of the late 19th century. ​ Dahomey and Oyo became rich by selling their captives to Europeans. -​ Political effects: society that exchanged enslaved people for guns, its raiders easily took advantage of rivals with zero gunpowder weapons. -​ Raiders soon gained riches and became more fortified with firearms. Intergroup warfare thus became more common and bloodier as a result. Slavery and Gender: ​ Gender distributions in those regions became severely imbalanced, more than ⅔ of those taken were males. Resulting in the predominance of women prompted a rise in polygyny (more than one wife) and forced women to assume duties that were traditionally male. Impact of new Food: ​ It ultimately spurred population growth through improved diets. The columbian Exchange introduced new crops such as American maize, peanuts and manioc which became staples in the African diets. Political and Cultural Changes for Indigenous people: ​ Land-based empires all grappled with how to deal with conquered people’s traditions and cultures. By either allowing tradition to exist or they attempted to graft their way onto those of their subjects. The Spanish and Portuguese empires managed to erase the basic social structures and many of the cultural traditions of the indigenous Americans within a century of the European’s arrival. Which resulted in nearly depopulating the Americas. Political Changes:  -​ Indigenous structures in Latin America were soon replaced by Spanish and Portuguese colonial administration. -​ Spanish royalty appointed Viceroys to act as administrators and representatives of the Spanish crown. To keep this going on, they established Audiencias, basically royal courts to which decisions or policies made by the Viceroys could be appealed by Spanish settlers. -​ Slow transportation and communication networks between Europe and the Americas, however, made it difficult for the Spanish crown to carry out direct control over New Spain. Resulting in the Spanish throne unable to focus on colonial affairs in the Western Hemisphere. Cultural Changes: -​ Indigenous Americans lost a large portion of their culture and history because of conquerors. -​ Conquistadors ordered the burning of native books that were sought to be unholy. Very few original documents were written in Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs. The Spanish burned these along with Spanish Conquistadors and priests after the conquest. -​ The belief that these authors processed biases and lack of familiarity with Nahuatl limits the value of the sources. -​ In 1545 Bernardino de Sahagun, (a Spanish priest) began compiling the Florentine Codex, one of the most widely cited sources about the Aztecs' life before conquest. -​ Spanish Predominates through much of Latin America, and the Brazilians overwhelmingly speak Portuguese. -​ By 1750, those born in America of Spanish descent ro creoles enjoyed political dominance in New Spain. They soon began clamoring for independence from the Spanish throne. Effects of Belief system: ​ Increased and intensity of newly established global connections between hemispheres extended the reach of existing religions. In some areas, these new connections contributed to the development of synectic belief systems and practices compared to others which only resulted in religious conflicts. Syncretic Belief Systems in the Americas: African meld with Christianity, Roman Catholicism, and with their West African religious traditions. ​ Santeria: the way of the saint. Became popular in Cuba and then traveled throughout Latin America and to North America. ​ Vodun: Spirit or deity. Started with African people resigning in Dahomey, Kongo, and Yoruba who were enslaved and living in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti). ​ Candomble: dance to honor the gods. Combination of Yoruba, Fon and Bantu Beliefs from different parts of Africa. Developed in Brazil. Enslaved Africans in the United Stated laid the roots for the African American Church, a hybrid of Christianity and African spiritual traditions. Islam: -​ 1 in 10 enslaved Africans practiced Islam which some men who sailed with Columbus may have been Muslims. Religion in Latin America: -​ Successful missionaries were sent to Latin America with religious orders in Europe in such areas as the Dominicans, Jesuit, and Franciscans. -​ In Spanish colonies the Catholic saints days that coincided with days honored by indigenous people were especially celebrated. In Mexico, a cult developed around the dark-complexioned Virgin of Guadalupe, who was revered for her ability to perform miracles. Global Interactions and Religious Conflicts: ​ Sufism's focus on personal salvation helped intensify Syncretic religions. ​ May have influenced Sikhism which is a blended Muslim and Hindu Belief system. Religion played a role in conflicts as global interactions increased. The Sunni and Shi’a Muslim worsened between the Ottoman and Safavid empires. Catholicism and Protestantism, between official states such as Anglicanism and other Protestant sects, helped drive the settlement of North America as people sought freedom to worship how they saw fit. 4.6 Internal and External Challenges to State Power -​ Fronde Civil disturbances in France between 1648 and 1653 attempted to curb growing royal power. -​ Metacom’s war (1675-1678) also referred to as King Philip’s War. which was part of the result of English colonists using underhanded tactics in their continuing pressure to control the Native American lands. Resistance to Portugal in Africa: ​ The Portuguese looked into Africa for the purpose of building a colony, which resulted in Africa to be attacked (not only by the African people). In 1624, Ana Nzinga became the ruler of Ndongo in south-central Africa. ​ In exchange for protection from neighboring powers and an end to Portugal raids, soon Nzinga became an ally of Portugal. ​ Nzinga was baptized as Christian, with the governor of the Portuguese colony as her godfather. The alliance broke down, leaving Nzinga and her people to flee to the west, taking over Matamba.  ​ Then she started a rebellion in Ndongo, allied with the Dutch, and offered freedom to Matamba to enslaved Africans. She ruled for decades and built Matamba into an economically strong state. Local Resistance in Russia: ​ Pressures on state power came from within Russia, instead of outside like the Portuguese empire. ​ Conditions improved for serfs in Western Europe by the 14th century, the same wasn’t true for those serfs in Russia. ​ Wars during the 14th and 15th centuries weakened the central government and increased the power of the nobility. ​ Increased demand for grain and nobles imposed harsh conditions on serfs resulting in long oppression for the serfs. ​ Russian princes collected heavy tribute and taxes from peasants in exchange for services (such as protection or support of the government’s army). ​ Increase in serfs due to peasant debt causing loss of their land then being forced into serfdom. Serfdom, power, and Control: -​ Benefitted the government because it kept the peasants under control and regulated by nobility. -​ Serfdom was free labor and sold along with lands of their owners. However, townspeople were also controlled and not permitted to move their business around freely to other cities. After the expansion of Russia to the west of the Baltic and east to siberia. The institution of serfdom followed this expansion causing serfs to continue being exploited until the practice ended, but not legally in western europe. -​ Elizabeth 1 freed the last serfs in England in 1574. In contrast, a law in 1649 chained russian serfs to the land they were born and ensured their service was to the landowners. The village communes called mirs also controlled even the small landholders among peasants. Cossacks and Peasant Rebellions: ​ Southwest of Moscow, near the black Sea, peasants who were skilled fighters lived on grassy, treeless steppes. While many runway serfs (lived in small groups) were influenced by the ways of the neighboring nomadic descendants of the Mongols. ​ These cossack warriors were sometimes at odds with the central, autocratic government of the tsars, however these fiercely independent warriors could also be hired as mercenaries to defend Mother Russia against Swedish, Tartar, and Ottoman forces. Because of this the Cossacks were very important in Russia’s expansion to the Ural mountains and farther east into Siberia.  ​ A cossack known as Yemelyan Pugachev began a peasant rebellion against Catherine the Great in 1774 for giving nobility power over the serfs on their lands in exchange for political loyalty, leaving the peasants without ties or recourse to the state. ​ Pugachev gathered those negatively impacted and soon these groups controlled the territory between the Volga River and Urals. Within a year he was captured by the Russian army and executed. ​ The final result was this rebellion caused Catherine to increase her oppression of the peasants in return for the support from the nobles to help her avoid future revolts. Rebellion in South Asia: -​ 16th and 17th centuries, the Mughals controlled using a centralized government and spread Persian art and culture as well as Islam. Much of the population remained Hindu with the Maratha fighting the Mughals in a series of battles from 1680 to 1707. Resulting in creating a Hindu Maratha empire which lasted until 1818, ending the Mughals rule of India. Revolts in the Spanish Empire: -​ The pueblo Revolt in 1680 against Spanish. -​ The Pueblo and Apache, two indigenous groups, fought colonizers who were trying to force religious conversions. -​ The indigenous people killed about 400 Spanish and drove the rest out as well as destroying churches. The Spanish reconquered the area in 1692. Struggles for Power in England and its Colonies: Maroon Wars: (1728-1740 and 1795-1796) -​ The Spanish colonized the Caribbean, England grew stronger and took control of Jamaica in 1655. Those enslaved in the Caribbean and former Spanish territories in the Americas fought to gain freedom. -​ Maroons are descendants of Africas who escaped slavery in Jamaica. Queen Nanny: -​ Escaped slavery, united maroons of the island, and then later was recognized as a national hero. Gloucester County Rebellion: -​ First recorded slave revolt in what is now the United states in Virginia 1663. These were mainly where enslaved Africans outnumbered free Europeans. -​ Enslaved Africans and white indentured servants conspired together to demand their freedom from the governor who found this out, ambushed them, and arrested them. Metacom’s War: -​ The final effort to drive out the British from New England was to revolt, which resulted in the war being spread throughout New England with the destruction of 12 towns.  Mohegan and Pequot siding with the English, who are some of the Native Americans that did this. -​ Where the war ended with the wampanoag people to the English colonists. James 2 -​ In 1685 he became king after the struggle for power. He was catholic and anti-protestant measures enraged many English people. -​ A group of nobles were invited, William of Orange, who was Jame’s nephew and son-in law to invade England in 1688 with James fleeing to France as a result. Mary 2: -​ William and his wife Mary (James's daughter) in 1689 began their joint rule of England. With both being Protestant and the English throne remaining that way henceforth. Glorious Revolution: -​ Other words called the Bloodless revolution for it strengthened the power of Parliament and passed a law forbidding Catholics to rule England. The revolution took place without much violence but religious tension continued in England and throughout much of the world. 4.7 Changing Social Hierarchies: ​ In Europe, the treatment of jews showed that majorities treated non-majority ethnic groups in different ways. Jew were expelled from England (1290), France (1394) and Spain (1492). The Ottoman empire provided a safe area for Jew fleeing from discrimination in Europe. ​ Huguenots (French protestants in the predominantly Catholic country) suffered great persecution, the formation of elite classes, including the boyars in Russia and the nobility in Europe. Both elites supported ruling power and challenged it. Social Classes and Minorities in Gunpowder Empires: Ottoman Society: -​ Social system was built around a warrior aristocracy that soon began to compete for positions in bureaucracy with the ulama, who were scholars and experts in Islamic law. -​ Within the military, the janissaries gained power and prestige. Ultimately, the Janissaries tried to mount coups against the sultans. Timar: a system in which the sultan granted land or tax revenues to those he favored. The sultan became increasingly ineffective and incapable, strong advisors (viziers) gained influential positions in government. Treatment of Religious Minorities:  ​ Religious tolerance towards Jews and Christian were one of the reasons the Ottoman empire was successful, after the Spanish monarch exiled Jew from the kingdom in 1492. ​ Sultan Mehmed 2 invited Jews to settle in Istanbul resulting in some Jews becoming court physicians and diplomats. While others literally contributed to the literary community and printing press to the Ottoman Empire. Lack of equality still remained in some aspects of law such as: -​ They were permitted to live only in specified areas of the city -​ Paid a tax called Jizya that was required for non-muslims -​ They couldn’t hold top positions, which were reserved for Muslims. Religious Tolerance in the Mughal Empire: ​ Akbar the Great (ruled 1556-1605), remembered for his military successes and his administrative achievements. He was tolerant of other religions, ended the Jizya tax, and he gave grants of land and money to Hindus and Muslims as well as providing funds to build a Catholic Church, and supported Sikhism. Women in the Ottoman Empire ​ Many wives and concubines of the sultan attempted to promote their own children to be the heir to the throne. The residence where a powerful man’s wives and concubines resigned is referenced to as a harem. ​ Roxelana, an unusually powerful woman in the Ottoman empire. When she was young, she was stolen by Crimean raiders from Eastern Europe, sold into slavery and forced to convert to Islam. Lastly entering the harem of Suleiman the Magnificent who was notable for his military and administrative skills. ​ She went from being enslaved to commissioning ambitious public works projects. Her son succeeded Suleiman, during his reign, viziers complained about the influence the harem had on politics for Roxelana’s rise showcased a rare issue. Other Social Classes: high Sultan Grand viziers/burearches janissaries/soldiers Merchants Pastoral people Peasants artisans Low ​ Those who were enslaved came from central and Eastern Europe, capturing prisoners of war in Ukraine or elsewhere. Barbary pirates were along the seas of North Africa, they  captured other Europeans and sold them to the sultan or other individuals of high ranking. Manchu Power and Conflicts in the Qing dynasty: ​ Lasting from 1644 until 1912 ruling under the Manchu people from Manchuria who then ruled over a majority of Han Chinese and other ethnic groups. Later the Han Chinese were recruited by the Qing dynasty to work under or alongside the Manchu. ​ They were ethnically, culturally distinct from the people, however they were less tolerant compared to Mongol leaders and resolved to make their culture dominant in China. ​ The Qing put their own people in top positions (government wise) and maintained continuity with some traditional Chinese practices such as the civil Service exam and burearchy. Conflict with the Han: -​ None of the Han civilians were allowed to wear Hanfu or traditional Han clothing. Men were required to wear hair in queues, the policy was a test of loyalty for Manchu but also a humiliating reminder that the Qing authority challenged traditional Confucian values and those who refused were killed. -​ Han Chinese General Li Chengdong orchestrated three separate massacres in the city of Jaiding within one month. By the end of four weeks there was hardly a person left alive. Later, Han Chinese defector Liu Liangzuo massacred the entire population of Jiangyin, killing between 74,000 and 100,000 people. European Hierarchies ★​ Hierarchies in Europe put the royal family on top with nobility not too much further behind -​ A class consisting of wealthy landowners -​ In many areas of Europe, nobility were given special privileges by law -​ Top 1% who passed their power, wealth,& land via inheritance Nobility W’s Nobility L’s ★​ Both the Netherlands & England ★​ Nobles were heavily criticized & governments were heavily wrestled with royalty, religious influenced by the nobility. However sects, the middle class, & pretty much everyone, to hold onto in this consolation of power power received push back from growing -​ Ex: King Louis XIV of religious sects & the middle class France reserved power [solely] for the crown due to a failed uprising​ -​ Royalty would also use more violent means to take power from nobility ★​ Growing Acceptance of Jews -​ The Jews expulsion from Spain caused a large number of Jews to resettle in nearby regions. This resulted in various forms of Jewish heritage such as Sephardie Jews [from Spain] & Ashkenazi Jews [from Germany] -​ Jewish tolerance was on the rise during the scientific revolution & Enlightenment. -​ Jews became prevalent in the economic & banking scenes in Europe -​ The Netherlands were the kindest to Jews :] Russian Social Classes Russian Hierarchy Boyars [nobles] Merchants Peasants Serfs  ★​ Russian royalty & Boyars conflict was very similar to Europe's crown & nobles. However.. -​ Ivan IV forcibly took the Boyars land & moved them to Moscow to monitor them Political & Economic Elites in the Americas ★​ Social structures changed drastically during this period due to various reasons -​ European settlement -​ Disease -​ Slave trade ★​ These changes resulted in a system in which social standing was based on heritage & skin color -​ Lower levels were required to pay higher taxes & tributes The Casta System - Latin America Peninsulares [from the Iberian Peninsula] Criollos [Europeans born in the Americas] Castas [Mixed people] 1.​ Mestizos [part European] 2.​ Mulattoes [European/African] 3.​ Zambos [Indigenous/African] ★​ This was a fairly rigid system which could only by bypassed via intermarriage​ 4.8: Continuity & Change from 1450-1750 Overview: ​ The spread & innovation of technology in this time period allowed for the East & West to form political, economic, & cultural connections. Europe carried out expeditions across the seas & solidified economic power. Syncretic forms of religion developed as a result of these connections. Meanwhile in the New World, coercive labor systems took place amongst colonists & indigenous people. The greed of European states in the New World also resulted in some VERY unethical practices as a means to obtain wealth. Transoceanic Travel & Trade ★​ Europeans finally got into the trading game during this time -​ This was driven by the desire to find a new route to Asia via maritime travel. They would be aided by various inventions [compass, caravel, lateen sail, etc] ★​ This would result in the Columbian Exchange -​ An exchange of biological entities such as people, crops, livestock, & disease ★​ The Atlantic System -​ A trading system consisting of West Europe, West Africa, & the Americas which exchanged people, precious metals, & other goods  -​ Caused widespread disease, forced migration, spread & development of syncretic religion, & the changing of social structures Economic Changes ★​ Europeans presence in maritime trade was primarily led by Portugal, England, & the Dutch -​ They all established trading posts in India & Africa -​ This led to conflict with longstanding merchants [Arabian, Indian, & Asian to the ladder’s determinante -​ Resulted in great European wealth ★​ Colonies in America -​ Spain would be followed by England, Portugal, France, & the Netherlands into the Americas to establish colonies -​ Silver from the Americas became a hot commodity [Spain → China] -​ Silver nearly tripled the economy at the time ★​ Mercantilism & Capitalism -​ European rulers began to see great wealth from extensive [& expansive] trade -​ They put in decreed mercantilist policies to secure more wealth from trade -​ Mercantilism would gradual shift to capitalism -​ Chartered companies [joint-stock companies] would form as a result Effects of the New Global Economy + Positive Effects + - Negative Effects - ★​ Big wealth flow into Europe ★​ Inflation from gold/silver trade ★​ Growth of the middle class —---------------------------------------------------------- ★​ Increased funding of the arts [via —---------------------------------------------------------- sponsorships] ------------------------------------------------------------- Demand for Labor Intensifies ★​ Both the Columbian Exchange & Atlantic Trade resulted in demographic shifts within the African population -​ The demand for slaves in the Americas to cultivate cash crops [sugar, cotton, bananas, etc] resulted in expodental increases in the selling of male African slaves -​ Africa’s population was on the decline due to gender imbalance, but recovered with the introduction of manioc ★​ Serfdom remained in areas of Afro-Eurasia, however coerced labor systems were on the rise. Here are a few examples -​ Chattel slavery -​ Indentured servants  -​ The Hacienda, Mit’a, & Encomienda systems ★​ As Native Americans, Africans, & Europeans coexisted in the Americas, new ridgid social systems formed on the basis of heritage formed -​ Europeans [& those of European descent] held a majority of the economic & political power -​ A subculture of people of mixed race began to form -​ This system would breed later revolutions.