Unit 8 Summary.docx
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Unit 8 Summary This unit discusses human interaction, defined as the process by which people act and react in relation to others, focusing on everyday, face-to-face interactions. It delves into micro sociology, also known as social psychology, which studies these structured interactions. Two example...
Unit 8 Summary This unit discusses human interaction, defined as the process by which people act and react in relation to others, focusing on everyday, face-to-face interactions. It delves into micro sociology, also known as social psychology, which studies these structured interactions. Two examples of interaction are given: African youths, who through their interaction, demonstrate their values and unity, embodying the South African concept of Ubuntu (“I am because we are”); and North Americans in a subway, who despite appearing not to interact, are very conscious of each other, practicing ‘civil inattention’, a term coined by Erving Goffman. This refers to the norm of not making eye contact or touching each other in public settings as a form of civility. The unit also revisits the central debate in sociology: whether people are free agents able to choose their actions and interactions, or whether they are constrained by social structure. It suggests that people can both choose to act and create, but are also constrained by social norms, such as the norm of civil inattention in public spaces. This balance between agency and social structure is a key theme in the study of human interaction. The text discusses the concept of the ‘definition of the situation’, which is an interpretation or perception of a situation that influences how people respond. This definition is not a direct response to a stimulus, but rather an interpretation of it. The text emphasizes that our responses are based on these interpretations, not the raw stimuli. Our definitions of situations are usually derived from previous experiences and are not constructed anew each time. This leads to a sense of social order and structure as people generally agree on these definitions and act accordingly. However, these definitions may not always be accurate, and changes in the situation can disrupt this continuity. Most of life is routine, and social order is a product of the routinization of the definition of the situation. An example given is the norm of passing on the right when walking down a sidewalk, mirroring the rules of vehicle traffic. This norm helps avoid collisions and maintains social order. However, if someone were to violate this norm, it could lead to chaos, illustrating the importance of these shared definitions in maintaining social structure. The text concludes by suggesting a sociology experiment to observe this phenomenon in action. However, norms differ as seen in traffic norms in the UK where all traffic passes on the left. However, when continuity is disrupted, negotiation is required. This can range from trivial instances, like deciding which side to pass a pedestrian in a hallway, to serious global political negotiations. These situations require interactive negotiation to coordinate activities. The text also introduces the concept of ‘awareness context’, which refers to what each person knows about the other’s identity and their own identity in the eyes of the other. This concept is explored through a study by Glaser and Strauss on the interaction between terminally ill patients and hospital staff. Four types of awareness contexts are discussed: ‘open’, where both parties are aware of the patient’s condition, and ‘closed’, where the patient is unaware of their condition. These different contexts significantly influence the nature of the interactions. In an open context, interactions focus on finalizing personal matters, while in a closed context, conversations often revolve around the future, despite the staff’s knowledge of the patient’s terminal condition. Then there′s ‘suspicion’, where one party suspects the other’s identity or their view of it, and ‘pretence’, where both parties are aware of the truth but pretend otherwise. These contexts significantly influence the nature of interactions. Examples are given across different scenarios. In a marriage where one partner is cheating, the awareness context shifts from open to closed, then to suspicion, and finally to pretence as the truth comes out. Similarly, in an academic setting, a student’s failing performance can shift the awareness context from open to closed, then to suspicion, and finally to pretence when both the teacher and student acknowledge the failure but pretend everything is okay. In a business setting, if a company is failing, employees may suspect it (suspicion context), or everyone may already know but not discuss it (pretence context). These different awareness contexts shape the interactions within these scenarios, demonstrating how they are formative of interaction. The text discusses how interaction can sometimes be conflictual due to confusion, misunderstanding, or conflicting interests. This conflict shapes the nature of the interaction and can lead to negotiation or argument to resolve the issue. An example given is the tradition of street hockey in Canada, where children spend more time arguing about the rules and structure of the game than playing. These arguments cover various aspects, from game rules to team and player identities. Despite appearing conflictual, these interactions are seen as beneficial, as they teach children the fundamentals of social interaction, which is deemed more important than the game itself. This highlights how conflict and negotiation in interactions can serve as valuable learning experiences. Social Roles and Identities 1 The text discusses social roles and identities, emphasizing that the smooth functioning of society depends on everyone playing their roles properly. It introduces two key terms: ‘status’ and ‘role’. ‘Status’ is a sociologically neutral term referring to a socially defined position in a group or society. It’s not about hierarchy, but about the position one occupies, such as being a friend, an unemployed person, or a Muslim. Status is the basic building block of social structure and represents who you are. ‘Role’, on the other hand, is what you do. It’s a cluster of duties, rights, and obligations associated with a particular status. For example, the role of a friend is to show care, the role of an unemployed person might be to look for a job, and the role of a Muslim might be to go to the mosque. The text also introduces the concept of ‘scripts’, which are the expected behaviors associated with a role. For instance, the script for a student is to study, the script for a part-time worker is defined by their job description, and so on. These scripts guide individuals on how to perform their roles in various contexts. ‘Claims’ are what one is entitled to expect from others. For example, a parent’s claim from their child is respect and compliance. ‘Status’ can be ‘ascribed’ (imposed involuntarily, such as race or sex) or ‘achieved’ (gained voluntarily through ability or effort, such as occupation or marital status). A ‘status set’ is the multiple statuses held simultaneously by an individual. For example, a person can be a doctor, a mother, a dancer, and a political activist at the same time. A ‘role set’ is the variety of expectations attached to each status in a status set. For example, a doctor is expected to give care, treatment, diagnosis, possibly perform surgery, conduct research, and administration. Overall, every status has a script (what you should do) and a claim (what you are entitled to expect from others), and that we have more than one status and every status has more than one role. ‘Master status’ is the primary identity of an individual that overrides all other statuses they hold. It’s what people think of first when they see the person. This status can be positive or negative, prestigious, or stigmatized, ascribed or achieved, and fixed or fluid. ‘Role strain’ occurs when role performance becomes stressful or problematic. This can happen when performance doesn’t meet expectations, when there are too many expectations, or when the evaluation criteria for a role are unclear. ‘Role conflict’ arises when the demands of two or more statuses that a person occupies are incompatible. For example, a parent may face a conflict between the role of being a parent and their professional role when their child is sick. Similarly, a Catholic priest hearing a confession of a crime may face a conflict between their role as a priest and their duty to report the crime/acting with integrity. ‘Role strain’ vs ‘role conflict’ two different concepts related to social roles. ‘Role strain’ occurs when there is tension within a single role. For example, an athlete on a team may want to excel but also not outshine their teammates. This internal conflict within the same role can lead to role strain. On the other hand, ‘role conflict’ arises when the demands or expectations of different roles clash. For instance, a person who is a team member, a student, and a daughter may face conflicting demands from these roles - attending practice, completing homework, and doing chores at home. This conflict between different roles leads to role conflict. In summary, role strain is about conflicting aspects within a single role, while role conflict involves tension between multiple roles. The text discusses the concept of "role exit" in sociology, which refers to the process of leaving or terminating one's status in a particular role, hence becoming an "ex" or former holder of that role. This could apply to various situations such as becoming an ex-employee or an ex-partner. The process of role exit involves the termination of a status and a role. Generally, these are macro-structural approaches to understanding social roles and identity. Social Roles and Identities 2 The text discusses micro-structural approaches to social roles and identity, which emphasize agency over structure. This perspective argues that individuals actively construct their own reality and negotiate their roles, rather than passively accepting them. Whereas the macro approach is likened to following a blueprint, a passive, top-down approach where individuals learn what’s expected of them in their roles and act accordingly. In contrast, the micro approach is compared to using a toolkit, an active, bottom-up approach where individuals create their own status and role. Social interaction, from a micro-structural perspective, involves at least two people engaging in mutual and reciprocal exchange. The analysis of such interactions considers various aspects, including the words spoken, the participants’ appearance, behavior, manners, moods, attitudes, and observable feelings. One key concept in the micro-structural approach is ‘role taking’, defined as imaginatively occupying the position of the other person. This involves trying to perceive the conversation from the other person’s perspective, imagining what they are thinking or feeling. This process, often unconscious, helps individuals engage better in interactions. If it requires conscious thought, something was done wrong and must be mediated with negotiation. Alter Casting is the act of casting another person into a specific role, rather than trying to understand their perspective. This can sometimes lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where treating someone in a certain way can eventually make them act that way. An example given is a parent encouraging their child to do better, casting them in the role of someone capable of more. It can be positive or negative. Role Making, on the other hand, is about constructing our own role in a situation. It’s about deciding who we want to be in each context, which is seen as the ultimate form of agency. We can choose to be a listener, a source of information, a peacemaker, etc., in a conversation or group setting. The text also explores the concept of self and identity, suggesting that our self is a social product, an outcome of our interactions with others. It raises the idea that we may have multiple selves, being different people in different social situations, especially if we care about the opinions of the people in those situations. The text questions whether there is a core stable self or if we are a different person in every social situation. Interaction and Communication 1 The text discusses the following concepts related to communication and human interaction: Impression Management: This is the effort people make to present themselves favorably to others. It’s analyzed extensively by the sociological school of thought known as dramaturgical analysis, which views life as a theater where we act out who we want to be. Impressions Given and Given Off: Impressions given are controlled and intentional, while impressions given off are unintentional and often reveal more about who we truly are. Front Stage and Backstage: These terms from dramaturgical analysis refer to the different roles we play depending on whether we’re in public (front stage) or private (backstage). The same physical space can serve as both, depending on the situation. The difference between these two is the most apparent in dramatic and crisis situations. Life as Theater: Drawing on Shakespeare’s famous quote “All the world′s a stage”, the text suggests that we play many parts in our lives, acting out different roles in different situations. Disclaimers: These are verbal devices used to prevent negative impressions before we say or do something. They show awareness of potential negative judgment and are used even when we can’t resist saying or doing something that might be perceived negatively. Accounts: These are explanations given after an action or statement, with the aim of warding off negative impressions. Excuses and Justifications: These are two types of accounts. An excuse acknowledges that an action was wrong but denies responsibility, while a justification acknowledges the action but argues that it was the right thing to do. For example, missing a class could be excused by illness or justified by the need to care for a sick child. These concepts all relate to the management of impressions in social interactions. The text also discusses several concepts related to communication, interaction, and emotion: Mode of Talk: The mode of talk links motives and motivations. While motives are the reasons for an action that we communicate explicitly, motivations refer to the actual, perhaps subconscious, reasons that drive our actions. These two may not always align, and understanding this discrepancy can provide deeper insights into human behavior. The text refers to C. Wright Mills’ concept of the “vocabulary of motive”. This concept suggests that individuals, such as preachers or politicians, have a set of standard explanations or justifications that they use to explain their actions. These explanations, or “motives”, are part of their public persona and are used to present their actions in a favorable light. The text questions whether these stated motives truly reflect the individual’s motivations, or if they are merely justifications or excuses. Teamwork: In interactions, people generally support each other’s performances and avoid causing embarrassment. This mutual support extends to trivial matters. For example, we may not tell a friend they have spinach in their teeth in a public context to avoid embarrassing them. Facial Expression and Emotion: Facial expressions are a form of nonverbal communication or body language. Research has identified six basic emotions expressed through the face: sadness, anger, happiness, disgust, surprise, and fear. These expressions appear to be universal across cultures and even among those who have been blind from birth, suggesting they may be natural rather than cultural. Masking Feelings: Sometimes, people use facial expressions to hide their real feelings. This is referred to as “masking” your feelings. Leakage: Despite attempts to control or mask emotions, there can be “leakage”, where true feelings seep through the facade. In polite conversation, this leakage is often ignored to maintain harmony. However, professionals like therapists and customs officers look for such leakage to detect underlying emotions or deception. Acting: Good actors can convey more than one emotion with their face at the same time, including deliberate leakage of a second or third emotion. This ability enhances their performance and makes them more convincing in their roles. Feeling Rules: These are the socially appropriate emotions for different situations, such as weddings or funerals. They dictate how we’re supposed to feel in various contexts. Feeling Work: This is the effort required when our actual feelings don’t match the socially appropriate ones. There are two ways to do feeling work: Impression Management: This involves displaying one emotion while feeling another. It’s a superficial way of aligning our displayed emotions with the feeling rules. Changing Authentic Feelings: This involves deeply manipulating our own feelings to eliminate the discrepancy between how we feel and the feeling rules. It’s a deeper kind of work that can lead to authentic alignment with the feeling rules. The text suggests that some jobs, particularly in the service industry, require constant feeling work. It also raises the possibility of authentically aligning with the feeling rules in certain situations, such as weddings or funerals. Interaction and Communication 2 The text discusses the concept of territoriality in human interaction, which is a form of nonverbal communication. It’s about the control of space and can be hard to define but is often recognized intuitively. There are different types of territories: Public Territories: These are open to all in the community, like streets and parks. Interactional Territories: These are places where people gather for specific purposes, such as bars, malls, arenas, or churches. Home Territories: These are places where regular participants have relative freedom to act in ways they wouldn’t in public or interactional territories. This includes not just homes, but also private clubs where everyone knows each other. Body Territories: These involve social rules about how bodies are displayed, used, and touched. This includes rules about touching someone else’s body, touching your own body, and what is considered appropriate in different situations. The text gives examples of situations where certain actions like grabbing one′s crotch might be acceptable for some people (like baseball players or rock stars) but not for others (like a professor in front of a class). The text introduces the concept of personal space and how it’s managed in various contexts: Definition: Personal space is the space surrounding our body where others are not welcome to intrude, depending on our level of intimacy with them. Cultural Differences: Personal space varies with culture. For instance, Latin Americans are comfortable standing within 18 inches of each other face-to-face, while North Americans prefer three feet. Contextual Differences: The acceptable distance between people can vary depending on the context, such as standing in a line or being in an elevator. Intimate Space: This refers to the space into which only intimate people (like family, friends, or lovers) are allowed. An example given is the act of kissing, where we close our eyes, possibly to eliminate the visual and focus on the tactile. Occupation of Space: Dominant individuals often occupy more space. For example, a boss might have a bigger office, or a professor might have more space at the front of the class. There are also gender differences in occupying space, with men often sprawling out and women tending to occupy less space. COVID-19 and Physical Distancing: The pandemic has added another layer to the concept of personal space, with physical distancing measures affecting how we manage our personal space in various situations, including dating. Controlling Personal Space Personal space is claimed and controlled in various ways, such as spreading out belongings on a table or bench. There is also violation, invasion, contamination, how we violate someone else's space Encroachments on personal space can take many forms, including visual (staring), auditory (dominating a room with one’s voice or music), and physical (taking over another’s territory). The intensity of reactions to encroachments varies based on factors like who did it, why they did it, how long it will last, and whether it will happen again. The ultimate violation of personal space is described as rape, which is categorized as contamination. Non-Verbal Communication Non-verbal communication involves communicating without words, using body movements, sounds, and other non-verbal cues. Paralanguage, such as grunting, groaning, whining, and crying, is a form of non-verbal communication that involves vocalizing without verbalizing. There are many other types of non-verbal communication, including gestures, pitch, voice, and even smells, not all of these were discussed in the text.
