UNIT VII Language and Inclusive Basic Education PDF

UNIT VII| LANGUAGE AND INCLUSIVE BASIC EDUCATION ISSUES AND CHALLENGES Introduction: In studying this Unit, two essential questions need to be addressed. First, when do we consider education to be inclusive? Second, what is the role of language in making...

UNIT VII| LANGUAGE AND INCLUSIVE BASIC EDUCATION ISSUES AND CHALLENGES Introduction: In studying this Unit, two essential questions need to be addressed. First, when do we consider education to be inclusive? Second, what is the role of language in making education inclusive? The concept of inclusive education rests at the core of human rights approach to education. This is premised on the belief that every child has a right to a quality education that respects and promotes her or his dignity and optimum development. Perhaps we could say we have witnessed in the years of our teaching experience how children are excluded from schools where they belong because of disability, race, language, religion, gender, and poverty. But experience taught us as well that this should not permeate the society because it is the child's every right to be supported by his/her parents and community to grow, learn, and develop in the early years, and, upon reaching school age, to go to school and be welcomed and included by teachers and peers alike. When all children, regardless of their differences, are educated together, everyone benefits—this is the cornerstone of inclusive education and at the heart of this inclusive education is the indispensable role that language plays. In this Unit, you are expected to: ✓ clarify understanding and develop a preliminary definition for “Inclusive education”; ✓ develop strategies to move towards achieving inclusive education. ✓ demonstrate deeper and wider understanding of language by relating it to its role in inclusive education; and ✓ conduct a research on language in the context of inclusive basic education. INCLUSIVE BASIC EDUCATION: Definitions, Features, Benefits Learning Competencies: At the end of this lesson, you are expected to: Explain the definition, importance of Inclusive Education  Explain the characteristics and components of inclusive education that may be applied to daily life Give insights on language teaching implications of inclusive basic education; Conduct a survey on students’ and teachers’ extent of knowledge and awareness on language and its role in inclusive basic education; and Write a one-page blog about the survey results; Introduction Quality education is a right for every child. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) both clearly express the aim of guaranteeing quality education for all and the importance of providing the required holistic support to develop each child’s potential. Quality education can only be achieved when each and every child, including the most marginalized and excluded children, are in school receiving inclusive quality education that provides them with the learning required for life - thus, the approach called inclusive education. The implementation of inclusive education globally: is driven by ideals that the inclusion of students with diverse abilities and needs is a human right and a necessity to make education accessible to all (Slee, 2018). focuses not only on changing pedagogical methods, curriculum delivery, and schools’ infrastructure (Ainscow, 2005) but also on how things are said and how language and terminology have to change to embrace these transformations. Underscores the significance of the choice of language as based on the fact that some language and terminology used in the past did not recognize the inherently exclusive nature of the concepts and words. While there has been some shift to a more inclusive language, the world is also learning from the process and it seems as though more still has to be done. The debate about the appropriateness of language and terminology in the field of inclusive education remains a bone of contention for global conversation. In this sense, it moves us to contextualize our understanding given the diversity of perspectives and experiences.  Before you proceed to the main lesson, try to map out your ideas on the concepts of inclusive education and language in inclusive education following the given organizers: Fig.1. Use th is to ma p out id ea s a b out inclusiv e ed uca tion Fig.2. Us e this to ma p out id ea s on la ng ua g e in in clusiv e ed uca ti on After mapping out the graphic organizers, explain your work in not more than 30 words. After sharing your ideas of the concepts of language and inclusive education, try to relate this knowledge to the readings that follow. What is Inclusion? Children who are seen ‘differently’ because of disability, ethnic background, language, poverty, to name a few are often excluded from or marginalised in society and local communities. Inclusion means changing the attitudes and practices of individuals and organizations so children can fully and equally participate in and contribute to the life of their community and culture. An inclusive society is one in which difference is respected and valued. Inclusion is seen as a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities, and reducing exclusion within and from education It involves changes and modifications in content, approaches, structures and strategies, with a common vision which covers all children of the appropriate age range and a conviction that it is the responsibility of the regular system to educate all children. concerned with providing appropriate responses to the broad spectrum of learning needs in formal and non-formal educational settings.  It aims towards enabling teachers and learners both to feel comfortable with diversity and to see it as a challenge and enrichment of the learning environment, rather than a problem. (UNESCO 2005, 13–15). What is Inclusive Education? Inclusive education is one dimension of a rights-based quality education which emphasizes equity in access and participation, and responds positively to the individual learning needs and competencies of all children. Inclusive education is child-centered and places the responsibility of adaptation on the education system rather than the individual child. Together with other sectors and the wider community, it actively works to ensure that every child, irrespective of gender, language, ability, religion, nationality or other characteristics, is supported to meaningfully participate and learn alongside his/her peers, and develop to his/her full potential.(Source: Save the Children (2014)- Save the children stands for inclusive education): “All children and young people of the world, with their individual strengths and weaknesses, with their hopes and expectations, have a right to education. It is not our education systems that have a right to certain types of children. Therefore, it is the school system of a country that must be adjusted to meet the needs of all children.” -Bengt Lindqvist, UN Special Rapporteur on Disability (1994) Inclusive Education refers to schools, centres of learning and educational systems that are open to ALL children. For this to happen, teachers, schools and systems may need to change so that they can better accommodate the diversity of student needs so they are included in all aspects of school-life. It also means a process of identifying any barriers within and around the school that hinder learning, and reducing or removing these barriers. Key Ideas on Inclusive Education: ▪ All children can learn and all need some form of support in learning ▪ All children benefit from cooperation, collaboration among home, among school, among community ▪ Identifying and minimising barriers to learning ▪ Includes the home, the community and other opportunities for education outside of schools ▪ Involves changing attitudes, behaviours, teaching methods, curricula and environments to meet the needs of all children Inclusive education is when all students, regardless of any challenges they may have, are placed in age-appropriate general education classes that are in their own neighborhood schools to receive high-quality instruction, interventions, and supports that enable them to meet success in the core curriculum (Bui, Quirk, Almazan, & Valenti, 2010; Alquraini & Gut, 2012).  The school and classroom operate on the premise that students with disabilities are as fundamentally competent as students without disabilities. Therefore, all students can be full participants in their classrooms and in the local school community. Much of the movement is related to legislation that students receive their education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). This means they are with their peers without disabilities to the maximum degree possible, with general education the placement of first choice for all students (Alquraini & Gut, 2012). Successful inclusive education happens primarily through accepting, understanding, and attending to student differences and diversity, which can include physical, cognitive, academic, social, and emotional. This is not to say that students never need to spend time out of regular education classes, because sometimes they do for a very particular purpose — for instance, for speech or occupational therapy. But the goal is this should be the exception. The driving principle is to make all students feel welcomed, appropriately challenged, and supported in their efforts. It is also critically important that the adults are supported, too. This includes the regular education teacher and the special education teacher, as well as all other staff and faculty who are key stakeholders — and that also includes parents. Inclusive Education in the context of UNICEF is a broad concept that includes all groups of children. UNICEF education programming covers all groups of children, paying particular attention to children at risk of being excluded from education. The good news is that there are effective ways to build inclusive societies in which children with and without disabilities can enjoy their rights, including their right to quality education, on an equal basis with their peers without disabilities. Inclusive education is the approach UNICEF employs to ensure every child receives a quality education. Inclusive education as defined in the Salamanca Statement promotes the “recognition of the need to work towards ‘schools for all’ − institutions which celebrate differences, support learning and respond to individual needs”. Inclusive education means that all students attend and are welcomed by their neighbourhood schools in age-appropriate, regular classes and are supported to learn, contribute and participate in all aspects of the life of the school. Inclusive education is about how we develop and design our schools, classrooms, programs and activities so that all students learn and participate together. Inclusive education is about ensuring access to quality education for all students by effectively meeting their diverse needs in a way that is responsive, accepting, respectful and supportive. Students participate in the education program in a  common learning environment with support to diminish and remove barriers and obstacles that may lead to exclusion. Inclusive education is carried out in a common learning environment; that is, an educational setting where students from different backgrounds and with different abilities learn together in an inclusive environment. Common learning environments are used for the majority of the students’ regular instruction hours and may include classrooms, libraries, gym, performance theatres, music rooms, cafeterias, playgrounds and the local community. A common learning environment is not a place where students with intellectual disabilities or other special needs learn in isolation from their peers. Effective common learning environments: Enable each student to fully participate in the learning environment that is designed for all students and is shared with peers in the chosen educational setting; Provide a positive climate, promote a sense of belonging and ensure student progress toward appropriate personal, social, emotional and academic goals; Are responsive to individual learning needs by providing sufficient levels of support and applying student-centred teaching practices and principles. Common learning environment: an inclusive environment where instruction is designed to be delivered to students of mixed ability and with their peer group in the community school, while being responsive to their individual needs as a learner, and used for the majority of the students’ regular instruction hours. Inclusive education values diversity and the unique contributions each student brings to the classroom. In a truly inclusive setting, every child feels safe and has a sense of belonging. Students and their parents participate in setting learning goals and take part in decisions that affect them and school staff have the training, support, flexibility, and resources to nurture, encourage, and respond to the needs of all students. Why is Inclusive Education Important? Inclusive systems provide a better quality education for all children and are instrumental in changing discriminatory attitudes. Schools provide the context for a child’s first relationship with the world outside their families, enabling the development of social relationships and interactions. Respect and understanding grow when students of diverse abilities and backgrounds play, socialize, and learn together. Education that excludes and segregates perpetuates discrimination against traditionally marginalized groups. When education is more inclusive, so are concepts of civic participation, employment, and community life. Needless to say, separate, special education provides no guarantee of success for children who need special attention; inclusive schools, on the other hand, which provide supportive, context-appropriate conditions for learning demonstrate far better outcomes.  Inclusive education is about looking at the ways our schools, classrooms, programs and lessons are designed so that all children can participate and learn. Inclusion is also about finding different ways of teaching so that classrooms actively involve all children. It also means finding ways to develop friendships, relationships and mutual respect between all children, and between children and teachers in the school. Inclusive education is not just for some children. Being included is not something that a child must be ready for. All children are at all times ready to attend regular schools and classrooms. Their participation is not something that must be earned. Inclusive education is a way of thinking about how to be creative to make our schools a place where all children can participate. Creativity may mean teachers learning to teach in different ways or designing their lessons so that all children can be involved. As a value, inclusive education reflects the expectation that we want all of our children to be appreciated and accepted throughout life. Inclusive education means that all children are educated in regular classrooms. It does not, however, mean that individual children cannot leave the classroom for specific reasons. For example, a child may require one-on-one assistance in a particular subject. This may or may not be happening during regular class time. Once schools are inclusive, serious thought is given to how often a child may be out of regular classroom and the reasons that this may be happening It does not mean that children with certain characteristics (for example, those who have disabilities) are grouped together in separate classrooms for all or part of the school day. What are the Benefits of Inclusive Education? Over the years, the benefits of providing an inclusive education to all children have been shown. Inclusive education (when practiced well) is very important because: All children are able to be part of their community and develop a sense of belonging and become better prepared for life in the community as children and adults. It provides better opportunities for learning. Children with varying abilities are often better motivated when they learn in classes surrounded by other children. The expectations of all the children are higher. Successful inclusion attempts to develop an individual’s strengths and gifts. It allows children to work on individual goals while being with other students their own age. It encourages the involvement of parents in the education of their children and the activities of their local schools. It fosters a culture of respect and belonging. It also provides the opportunity to learn about and accept individual differences. It provides all children with opportunities to develop friendships with one another. Friendships provide role models and opportunities for growth. What are the Key Features of Inclusive Education?  When implemented well, inclusive education provides a better, if not the best, quality education for the students. Generally, inclusive education will be successful if these important features and practices are followed: Accepting unconditionally all children into regular classes and the life of the school. Providing as much support to children, teachers and classrooms as necessary to ensure that all children can participate in their schools and classes. Looking at all children at what they can do rather then what they cannot do. Teachers and parents have high expectations of all children. Developing education goals according to each child’s abilities. This means that children do not need to have the same education goals in order to learn together in regular classes. Designing schools and classes in ways that help children learn and achieve to their fullest potential (for example, by developing class time tables for allowing more individual attention for all students). Having strong leadership for inclusion from school principals and other administrators. Having teachers who have knowledge about different ways of teaching so that children with various abilities and strengths can learn together. Having principals, teachers, parents and others work together to determine the most affective ways of providing a quality education in an inclusive environment. Using language to create opportunities for students to interact and bond with fellow classmates and teachers, respecting and building healthy intergroup relations. Activity 1. Based on the concepts you have read and explored earlier, w rite 2-3 sentences as to what each picture says and how this picture reflects inclusive education. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Activity 2. All children are different! In school, children have to learn many different things. Some children seem to learn quickly; others are slower. In certain subjects, a child may do better than others. For example, some students can be good at reading but poorer at maths. Often we do not know why this happens. Given the following statements, how does language facilitate or impede inclusive education? Explain briefly but substantially. 1. Some children are more intelligent than others 2. He’s just like his father! 3. That girl does not pay attention in class 4. His parents help him with homework everyday 5. The family is poor and they don’t have enough food 6. The child cannot hear well when sat at the back of the class Activity 1: Analyze the following case studies and answer the questions that follow each: Case Study 1: Class A : There are 40 students in primary grade 3 class. The students are opening their work book and holding a pen in hand to write. The teacher is copying the story from text book onto the board as it is written. Male students who are seated on the right side of the class are writing down what teacher has written into their workbook. The female students who are seated on the left side of the classroom have to wait until the teacher moved out to see what was written on the board then write it down onto their workbook. While the teacher is writing, he asks “Have you all written down the story which I am writing on the board into your workbook?” every students replies “ Yes” Class B : Two (2) groups of students are sitting on the floor in cycles. They are mixed male and female students in two groups. The teacher of primary grade 3 class is teaching different shapes of geometric subject to the students. In group 1, the children are discussing on the cycle shape. Teacher displays the existing cycle objects which students had been asked to bring from home earlier. Children touch the objects and work together to write down the lists of other objects that are in cycle shape. In the other group, some children are holding a loop of newspaper shaped like a long wood. Teacher calls the number then student who has that number drops down his/her loop of newspaper onto the middle of the class to build up a square shape. One student who has hearing problem added her loop of newspaper to create a triangle shape and smiles at the teacher. The teach smiles back and says “very good” making sure that the student can see his lips while saying. One carer who is the class volunteer for one week, gently claps on the student’s arm and turns to help other students who are still not sure where to put their loop of newspaper on to create any shape. 1. Which class do you believe to be the inclusive education? 2. What shows you the inclusive education? Case Study 2: Mrs. Brown has been teaching for several years now and is both excited and a little nervous about her school’s decision to implement inclusive education. Over the years she has had several special education students in her class but they either got pulled out for time with specialists or just joined for activities like art, music, P.E., lunch, and sometimes for selected academics. She has always found this method a bit disjointed and has wanted to be much more involved in educating these students and finding ways they can take part more fully in her classroom. She knows she needs guidance in designing and implementing her inclusive classroom, but she’s ready for the challenge and looking forward to seeing the many benefits she’s been reading and hearing about for the children, their families, their peers, herself, and the school as a whole. During the month before school starts, Mrs. Brown meets with the special education teacher, Mr. Lopez — and other teachers and staff who work with her students — to coordinate the instructional plan that is based on the IEPs (Individual Educational Plan) of the three students with disabilities who will be in her class the upcoming year. About two weeks before school starts, she invites each of the three children and their families to come into the classroom for individual tours and get-to-know-you sessions with both herself and the special education teacher. She makes sure to provide information about back-to-school night and extends a personal invitation to them to attend so they can meet the other families and children. She feels very good about how this is coming together and how excited and happy the children and their families are feeling. One student really summed it up when he told her, “You and I are going to have a great year!” The school district and the principal have sent out communications to all the parents about the move to inclusion education at Mrs. Brown’s school. Now she wants to make sure she really communicates effectively with the parents, especially as some of the parents of both SWD and regular ed students have expressed hesitation that having their child in an inclusive classroom would work. She talks to the administration and other teachers and, with their okay, sends out a joint communication after about two months into the school year with some questions provided by the book Creating Inclusive Classrooms (Salend, 2001 referenced in Salend & Garrick-Duhaney, 2001) such as, “How has being in an inclusion classroom affected your child academically, socially, and behaviorally? Please describe any benefits or negative consequences you have observed in your child. What factors led to these changes?” and “How has your child’s placement in an inclusion classroom affected you? Please describe any benefits or any negative consequences for you.” and “What additional information would you like to have about inclusion and your child’s class?” She plans to look for trends and prepare a communication that she will share with parents. She also plans to send out a questionnaire with different questions every couple of months throughout the school year. Since she found out about the move to an inclusive education approach at her school, Mrs. Brown has been working closely with the special education teacher, Mr. Lopez, and reading a great deal about the benefits and the challenges. Determined to be successful, she is especially focused on effective inclusive classroom strategies. Her hard work is paying off. Her mid-year and end-of-year results are very positive. The SWDs are meeting their IEP goals. Her regular ed students are excelling. A spirit of collaboration and positive energy pervades her classroom and she feels this in the whole school as they practice inclusive education. The children are happy and proud of their accomplishments. The principal regularly compliments her. The parents are positive, relaxed, and supportive. Mrs. Brown knows she has more to learn and do, but her confidence and satisfaction are high. She is especially delighted that she has been selected to be a part of her district’s team to train other regular education teachers about inclusive education and classrooms. Do you agree or disagree with Mrs. Brown's steps? If you were Mrs. Brown, what other means would you explore to make education inclusive? After exploring and working on case studies, you are now ready to manifest understanding and appreciation of inclusive education. Instructions: Choose any basic education institution as your reference. Please read the following indicators in the Inclusive Education Environment Indicators in School Assessment Form, and note your observation by putting the tick () for what the school is able to do and put the cross () for what the school is unable to do. After getting the results, write a one-page blog or article which will be evaluated based on the given rubric. No. Indicators Able to Do Unable to Do Description Remarks 1 The children are welcomed to the school. 2 The students help each other during classes 3 The students are helped and supported by the teachers and staff in the school 4 There is good cooperation among teachers and parents 5 The students are equally treated so do all members in the school  6 Students are recognized in the school 7 Students can access to every lessons taught 8 Students can access any place in the school building 9 Students attend school regularly 10 Students enjoy their classes 11 Students participate in any activities during classes 12 Students pass all the subjects showing their own capabilities. 13 Students commence their learning at the same time 14 Students can equally access to the appropriated healthcare services 15 The school is the key confidence builder for children to enrol. 16 Disabled children can pursue their studies 17 There is a learning environment that builds and that promotes all students’ learning. Rubric for scoring the blog or article: Exceptional Work Meets Needs Unsatisfactory (4) Expectations (3) Improvement (2) (1) Content The post/article The post/article The post/article Ideas expressed are contains all original contains mostly contains few original not original and are ideas which are original ideas which ideas and half of the not connected to expressed clearly. are expressed facts in post/article the discussion All facts in the clearly. Almost all of are accurate based around the results of post/article are the facts in on the survey made. the survey made accurate based on post/article are the survey made. accurate based on None of the facts in The blog/article the survey made. the post/article are encourages accurate based on  thoughtful reflection the survey and understanding conducted. by readers. Writing quality Post/article is well- Post/article is well- Post/article is well- Post/article is of poor written and is written and is written and is quality and there characterized by a characterized by a characterized by a are more than 5 strong writing style. strong writing style strong writing style grammatical There are no but there are 1-2 but there are 3-4 mistakes in the grammatical grammatical grammatical post/article. mistakes in the mistakes in the mistakes in the post/article. post/article post/article. Organization The entire Almost all parts of Half of the The post/article has post/article has a the post/article post/article show no clear beginning, clear beginning, show clear clear beginning, middle, and end. middle, and end. beginning, middle, middle, and end. and end. Congratulations! The first lesson in this Unit is about to end. Give yourself two thumbs up for making it this far. To officially end your learning journey, write your reflection and conclusion by completing this graphic organizer. _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ I think there is still a need to learn more I am certain that I about.... I could apply what I learned about…. learned by….  INCLUSIVE BASIC EDUCATION: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES Introduction: Human life in general and learning contents in particular are naturally complex and dynamic. This situation loudly calls for dynamic, relevant and integrative approaches to the teaching of all school subjects in general and target languages in particular with a view of manipulating the complexity of the situation and achieving functional objectives of education. In view of the far-reaching role of education in the development of the society, and the strategic roles that the English language plays in the educational, socio-political, socio- economic, and socio-cultural life in the country, this lesson presents issues and challenges of inclusive basic education. Learning Competencies: At the end of this lesson, you are expected to: 1. Define the problems of inclusive education; 2. Explain the building and maintenance of inclusive education in sustainable way; 3. Debate on select issues in inclusive education; 4. Address the issues and challenges of inclusive education; and 5. Discuss the implications of addressing the issues in the teaching of English as a second language. In the first lesson of this Unit, you were introduced to the working definitions, features, and the benefits of inclusive education. This time, we address the issues and challenges along the journey to inclusivity. Before you further your journey with inclusive education, reflect on the following activities: Activity 1. Choose one from among the questions: What changes could you make to my classroom so it is more inclusive and learning friendly? How could you make topics more interesting so all students can learn? How could you arrange the classroom to include ALL students to learn together?  How can you change the classroom so children with disabilities can learn? ____________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________. Activity 2. Reflect on the quote “Everybody is a genius. But if you judge a fish by its ability to climb a tree, it will live its whole life believing that it is stupid,” and discuss how this relates to issues and challenges in inclusive education. _____________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________. After sharing your thoughts/feelings about the questions and the quotes, try to relate this to the issues and challenges that follow: The Bridge between Language and Education In every society, language is used as a tool for communication between people. A specific language uses a particular kind of terminology and vocabulary to convey messages or meaning to other people. Each and every science discipline adopts a specific language and terminology unique to it. This is what Bernstein (1999) refers to as the language of description. Every scientist needs to be socialized into this language to able to share meanings with coscientists. The same principle is applicable to the socialization of people in a culture or societal practices. Language and terminology could have connotative meaning (unique to the individual) or denotative meaning (common to a group of people). The sharing of meaning is crucial for communication, knowledge production, and transmission. The ability of a person to master language has an impact on how successful the individual will be in socialization in a specific language. Therefore, in education, in the quest to provide knowledge, certain forms of terminology and vocabularies are privileged more than others. The power of language produces discourses that influence people’s behavior and actions. According to Fairclough (1995), once the discourse is produced, it carries with it a powerful influence on people. A discourse involves social conditions and interpretations. Therefore, languages as discourse are produced discursively within a specific social condition and milieu. These then lay the basis for how people will derive meanings and interpretations of situations.  The understanding of language has to be considered in a historical–cultural context (Wardhaugh, 2006). Language development in many regions of the world has taken place independently; however, globalization has led to the movement of people from across the spectrum of the world, prompting a different approach to language inclusivity. Therefore, sociolinguistics helps one understand how language develops as a societal structure, how the dualism between language and society unfolds, and the influence that has on the language user. The Role of Language in Meeting the Challenges of Inclusive Education Inclusive education faces a myriad of challenges in the present setup. If the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education has helped enrol more children into schools, it also raises important questions about ‘equality’. Apart from access to education and enrolment in schools, ‘inclusion’ entails the place of education to be devoid of self-denigrating experiences for children. Students are often evaluated on the basis of their academic performance alone, giving them all an equal footing. This refutes the collective and individual identities of each of these children, marked by their social circumstances. Their learning capacities are also often vulnerable to these factors. The social experiences of these children, pertaining to class, caste, ethnicity, religion, gender, and language must be taken into consideration when their education is addressed. An important, if not the main, function of education is to empower children with the skills, knowledge, and attitude required to function as members of the society. The void left by the lack of adequate language instruction can deeply affect social functioning. It is the school’s task to make up for the fissures caused by social conditions on language. English can easily be considered as the one language that aids in integrating students to the mainstream. The responsibility of schools entails not just grammatical instruction or introducing students to new words, but providing adequate opportunities to practice the language. Language teaching is not the responsibility of the language teacher alone but must be the collective undertaking of all teachers, teaching all subjects. Every teacher teaches language when he or she explains science, math, or social science. Language is used to construct knowledge. This occurs constantly in school and the importance of using ‘correct’ language must not be overlooked by teachers of non-language subjects. The way knowledge, skills, and attitudes are communicated in schools contributes to emancipation through education. Issues and Challenges on Language of Instruction THE ISSUE There are more than 7,000 known living languages and most children grow up in an environment where more than one is spoken (Wisbey, 2017). However, studies show that almost 40 per cent of children do not have access to an education in a language they understand and this is negatively affecting their learning (UNESCO, 2016). Many countries still prioritize national or official languages (second language) as the medium of instruction, which are often not the languages children speak at home (Kosonen, 2017). The importance of language of instruction for a quality and equitable education is recognized in the Sustainable Development Goals. Thematic indicator 4.5.2 reports on the percentage of students in primary education whose first or home language is the language of instruction (UIS, 2018). WHAT WE KNOW Children learn best when the first language of instruction is their mother tongue (Benson, 2004; Bühmann and Trudell, 2007; Pinnock, 2009a, 2009b). Results of learning assessments show that when home and school languages differ there is a negative impact on test scores. (UNESCO, 2016). According to an analysis of SACMEQ III data in 2010, there is a positive correlation between speaking the language of instruction and pupil achievement, especially in reading (Trudell, 2016). Using the mother tongue in the classroom has been found to enhance classroom participation, decrease attrition, and increase the likelihood of family and community engagement in the child’s learning (Trudell, 2016). In order to enhance their learning, students also need access to inclusive and culturally relevant curriculum and learning materials in a language with which they are familiar (Bühmann and Trudell, 2007; Mackenzie and Walker, n.d.; Pinnock, 2009b; UNESCO, 2016). Most research now concludes that learning achievement is enhanced when children are taught in their mother tongue for at least the first six years of primary school before the second language, the main language of instruction, is introduced (Ball, 2011; Benson, 2004; Pinnock, 2009a, 2009b; UNESCO, 2016). Bilingual and/or multilingual education has been found to increase a student’s self-confidence and self-esteem (UNESCO, 2016). In bilingual models, students continue to use both mother tongue and second language as languages of instruction for a range of academic subjects throughout primary and secondary schooling (Ball, 2011; Pinnock, 2009a). If the transition from mother tongue to second language is too rapid, the risk is that students will not attain full mastery of either language (Benson, 2004; Pinnock, 2009a). Mother tongue-based bilingual education – the use of the child’s mother tongue alongside a second language – is now the recommended strategy (UNESCO, 2016). CHALLENGES While many countries have a national language policy that supports the use of local languages, such policies are not always implemented in the classroom (Trudell, 2016). There may be a number of reasons for this misalignment: Perceived status of the mother-tongue language: In communities where many languages are spoken, there may be a disagreement about which language should be taught as the ‘majority language’. A minority language may have a lower status within the community, making acceptance of mother-tongue instruction more difficult as well as the reluctance of mother-tongue learners to use their language (Ball, 2011). Cost: There are widespread concerns about the high costs of local-language medium of instruction, but these are not always backed up by evidence (Trudell, 2016). The rewards of schooling in local languages outweigh the costs, with gains in educational quality, lower attrition and drop out, and enhanced inclusion leading to savings from reduced school repetition and dropouts (Benson, 2004; Pinnock, 2009a, 2009b; Trudell, 2016, UNESCO, 2016). Lack of trained teachers: Local languages have been marginalized in many education systems, often resulting in a shortage of qualified teachers able to understand, speak and teach in a child’s mother tongue (Ball, 2011; Benson, 2004; Pinnock, 2009a). Unwritten and non-standardized languages: The level of written development of the local languages may raise issues as to their pedagogical suitability (Trudell, 2016). Language planning may be necessary in order to create or modify a language’s writing system, standardize spelling and usage, and, if necessary, expand the lexicon to include any missing vocabulary (Bühmann and Trudell, 2007; Ball, 2011). INCLUSION AND EQUITY ISSUES Students are unable to receive support from their parents if they also do not understand the language of instruction. If a child’s parents lack familiarity with the language of instruction used in school this can further reinforce the gap between minority and majority language groups (UNESCO, 2016). Children studying in an unfamiliar language face a double burden. Not only must they learn new academic concepts and skills, they must do so using words they do not understand (Bühmann and Trudell, 2007; Pinnock, 2009b). There is strong evidence that use of the mother tongue in the initial years of schooling helps reach socially and educationally marginalised populations, improving their enrolment, attendance, and achievement (Pinnock, 2009b). Marginalization of indigenous communities in high- income countries is also visible in student assessments (UNESCO, 2016). Several studies show that offering instruction in the mother tongue has a positive impact on girls’ enrolment and transition rates, primarily because girls are less exposed than boys to languages outside the home and so face a tougher barrier when the mother tongue is not used in school (Benson, 2004, 2005). Migration and displacement can affect education, requiring systems to accommodate those with migrant backgrounds who do not speak the language of instruction at home. A lack of knowledge of the language of instruction or the classroom language hinders the ability of refugee students to engage, learn, and communicate, and is a barrier to being included in national education systems, especially for older children and youth (UNESCO, 2018). Addressing Barriers to Inclusive Education Teachers have the responsibility to identify and address the barriers in their education system or school that may prevent learners from accessing education, participating in the learning process and making achievements to the best of their individual abilities (UNESCO, 2013). Such barriers may include negative parental, family or community attitude towards girl-child education. Similarly, if a teacher has negative attitude about the potential of learners with learning disabilities/ difficulties such as visual and / or hearing impairment, that teacher may not make efforts to include learners with such challenges in classroom activities. Furthermore, barriers to education are often linked to wider structural and cyclical inequalities in the society. For example, members of a poor family may not have access to qualitative education which, in turn, minimizes their chances to power and status in the society. In the light of this background, administrators and teachers in the UBE programme shoulder the responsibility to address the various barriers to inclusive education in the country. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2013: 5) observes that addressing barriers to inclusive education requires a systematic and far-reaching approach. In line with this, UNESCO (2013: 6) designed the table adapted below to illustrate the process of addressing barriers to inclusive education: Type of Barrier Example Solutions Attitude A bias against learners with A welcoming attitude to all disability/ from ethnic learners which sees their minority/low social class diversity as an opportunity and not a problem for good education A belief that slow learners are A belief that working to not worth wasting time on/ support the slow learner is as Not all children are able to worthwhile as supporting the learn fast learners/ All children are able to learn Negative attitudes towards Supporting female learners to female learners' education in attend and flourish in schools school Practices Rote teaching and learning Provision of interactive/ practical leaning activities Provision of exam-centred Provision of functional education education Lack of interactive and Provision of interactive and participatory teaching participatory teaching methods and activities methods and activities The use of corporal The use of positive/ punishment noncorporal punishment The use of language which The use of bilingual/ most of the learners cannot multilingual teaching understand Gender bias in school Giving fair and equal teaching treatment to male and female learners  Inability/ unwillingness to Readiness to work with deal with learners with learners with disabilities disabilities Resources Lack of teaching and Provision of gender neutral learning resources that are and accessible learning gender sensitive, accessible resources for different groups to learners with disabilities, of learners accessible to learner from minority ethnic group, and locally relevant Lack of chairs, desks, tables, More support for procuring and assistive devices for the the relevant instructional improvement of teaching materials for effective and learning activities teaching and learning Policies Policies that do not support Making policies that support the development of curricula that provides for the linguistically appropriate and appropriate and relevant locally relevant curricula and learning contents that relate material that relate to the to the aspirations of the local local community and community classrooms Policies which do not support Making policies that gender balance and recognise gender balance learners with disabilities and learners with disabilities Policies which only allow for Provision of policies that teaching in a dominant support teaching in national language rather multilingual and mother than the learners‘ mother tongue teaching tongue or multilingual Environment Lack of clean water and Ensuring that schools have toilets, and lack of separate access to clean and toilets for female and male adequate water, and learners separate toilets for the two sexes Inaccessible classrooms and Making all classrooms and other facilities (e.g. multi- related offices accessible for storey school building) for learners with disabilities learners with mobility challenges In addition to the process of addressing barriers to inclusive education indicated in the table above, Dixon (2013: 5) advises teachers and administrators in schools to observe the following guidelines in the inclusive education classrooms: 1) Give your students the opportunity to share their diverse experiences as they relate to the course contents;  2) Reflect diversity in your syllabus, reading and visual materials; 3) Provide opportunities for your students to interact across cultures; 4) Use visual materials to illustrate your lessons; 5) Do not hold one groups‘ experiences as the norms against which others are measured and evaluated; 6) Do not stereotype individuals and/ or group among your students; 7) Use inclusive language in your teaching; 8) Try to learn about your students‘ cultures; 9) Try to call your students by name It is apparent that this advice is aimed at empowering teacher to strengthen the process of inclusive education in their schools. Worth (2014) considers inclusive language as a language that avoids the use of certain words and expressions that exclude particular groups of people. Inclusive language is also seen as a form of spoken and written language that aims to eliminate or neutralize reference to gender, ethnicity, race, disability and related natural conditions (Quirk, Greenboum, Leech & Svartvic, 1985). For example, the word policeman‘ and stewardess‘ are gender specific, while police officer‘ and flight attendant‘ are gender neutral. Similarly the word blind‘ is not appropriate for use in inclusive language-based teaching and learning. The right alternative is, among others, visually challenged‘. Advocates of inclusive language emphasize that whenever speaking or writing, it is very important to use language that fits the audience and purpose, and that inappropriate language can undermine one‘s argument and alienate the audience (Dixon, 2013). The advocates maintain that writers who use unbiased language write in ways that are free from gender and groups stereotypes including race, ethnicity, disability or gender. English language teachers need to be guided by the highlights on the focus and practices of inclusive language in formal school setting. The trend in the promotion of inclusive English language indicates emphasis in the area of vocabulary development particularly in terms nouns and pronouns as they relate to gender markers (he, she, it). For example, whereas he and she are used for entities treated as persons (including supernatural beings and, sometimes, animals/ pets), the pronoun it‘ is normally used for entities not regarded as persons, though the use of he or she is optional for animals of known sex (Quirk et al. 1985: 342). These authors provide examples to illustrate the use of it‘ and her‘ to refer to a bird as follows: 1) The robin builds its net in a well-chosen position,.. and after the eggs have hatched, the mother bird feeds her young there for several weeks. The pronoun it, according to the authors, can also be used of children in some circumstances, for instance when the sex is indefinite or when the writer has no emotional connection to the child, as in a scientific context. For example: 2) A child learns to speak the language of its environment. As inclusive English language teaching places emphasis on the teaching and use of vocabulary as they relate to gender, disability, race, ethnicity, and related labels, English language teachers need to identify and apply the appropriate reading materials, teaching methods, conducive teaching and learning atmosphere and curricular support in order to achieve their objectives. The following would serve as a guide for English language teachers in the teaching of inclusive English language. The Curriculum The English language curriculum should be supported or adapted to dislodge barriers to inclusive language in terms of vocabulary, teaching methods, and evaluation practices. a) Vocabulary This centres on nouns, pronouns, and adjectives that relate to gender, race, disabilities, ethnicity, and related labels. The table below shows examples in both non- inclusive and inclusive English language usage to serve as a guide: Gender Specific Nouns Gender Neutral Nouns Mankind People Chairman Chairperson Salesman Salesperson Policeman Police officer Mailman Mail carrier Wife/ Husband Spouse Waiter/ Waitress Server Steward/ Stewardess Flight attendant Men at work People at work Fireman Fire fighter Manpower Work force Businessman Business person b) Reading Materials When choosing novels, poems, short stories, and related reading materials, ensure that you choose ones that use language which are neutral in terms of gender, ethnicity, race, and free from stereotypes. In other words, select literature that is representative of a variety of cultures and of how those cultures function in their various community domains. c) Interaction with the Target Language Learners Treat and respect each student as an individual for who she or he is; Rectify any language pattern or case that exclude or demean any group (s); Use both she and he during lectures, discussions and writing and encourage the students to do the same; Request your students to use gender neutral words in the essays they write; Have the students go through newspapers and magazines and try to identify non-neutral words and come up with neutral alternatives;  Avoid vocabulary that extends negative racial, cultural, or ethnic connotations, and avoid usage that carries hierarchical valuation or portrays groups of people as inferior, bad. Criminal or less valued than others; Be conscious of norms which can limit a person‘s aspirations and selfconcept. Imagine what it would do to an African or African-American child, for example, to be bombarded with images of white as beautiful or clean or pure or virtuous and black as dirty and menacing. It is equally bad to create guilt in the socially concerned white middle class youth by claiming that she or he is one of the oppressors or the roots of evils (Worth, 2014). * National Journal of Inclusive Education – Vol. 3, No. 1 Directions: Answer the following question substantially. Based on what you read, and situating yourself as a teacher of ESL, how do you ensure your English language classrooms to be inclusive? Activity1. Let's have a Virtual Debate! Form ten (10) groups with 3 members each: 5 groups will affirm while the other 5 groups will negate on their assigned topics. Each group will have a lottery draw for the topic to be explored and debated upon. Topic 1: Are quality and equity the basic parameters through which inclusive education should be measured? Topic 2: Is inclusive education a necessary tool in the pursuit of Education for All (EFA)? Topic 3: Is inclusive education an end in itself or a process? Topic 4: Is it possible to have a just educational system—one that embodies the principles of justice—without pursuing a model of inclusive education? Topic 5: Can educational systems in which students are tracked early (at age 10 or 12) really be considered inclusive? Topic 6: Experts assert that the best way to attain language fluency is through inclusion instructional methods but many leaders still argue that there are better  ways to teach both ESL and English speaking students through non- inclusion practices. Which is which? Inclusion or Exclusion? Gender-neutral language is inclusive and free of stereotypes and biases. Make your writing accurate and effective by learning the basic guidelines for gender- inclusive language. I. Directions: To find out how your inclusive language skills measure up, choose the best answer for formal writing in the questions below. 1. This summer, Mary will be working at the King Burger store as a ____ a. server b. waiter c. waitress 2. That organization stands for peace and hope for _____. a. mankind b. man c. humanity 3. I would like to introduce you to our ____ pediatrician, Dr. Marissa Malana. a. charming b. female c. (nothing) 4. I will give the contract to whoever the plumber you recommend, but only if ____ proves competent. a. he b.s/he c. that person 5. Any student who uses a cell phone to text in class will have ___ phone confiscated. a. his or her b. the c. their II. ESSAY Directions: Write one-paragraph answers of about 5 sentences to each essay question that follows: 1. How do gender ideologies and language ideologies fit together? Put another way: How do cultural ideas about maleness and femaleness (masculine and feminine qualities) interact with ideas about language? You could consider everything from dialect speech and gender to ideas about male and female roles in the family or on the job and how this affects language usage. 2. How is language use part of stereotypes about masculine and feminine language? What are the consequences for men and women who do not conform to expectations for gender-appropriate language use? Use two examples from our readings to support your answer.  Congratulations! The second lesson in this Unit is about to end. Give yourself two thumbs up for making it this far. To officially end your learning journey, write your reflection and conclusion by completing this graphic organizer. _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ I think there is still a need to learn more I am certain that I about.... I could apply what I learned about…. learned by…. References: 1. Acedo, C., Ferrer, F. & Pàmies, J. Inclusive education: Open debates and the road ahead. Prospects 39, 227–238 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-009-9129-7 2. Association for the Development of Education in Africa. 2010. Policy guide on the integration of African languages and cultures into education systems. Tunis: ADEA. 3. Heugh, K. et al. 2019. Using multilingual approaches: moving from theory to practice. London: British Coucil. 4. Malone, S. 2016. MTB MLE resource kit: Including the excluded: Promoting multilingual education. Paris, UNESCO; Bangkok, UNESCO Office Bangkok. 5. Pflepsen, A. 2015. Planning for language use in education: Best practices and practical steps to improve learning outcomes. Research Triangle Park NC: USAID. 6. Piet Van Avermaet, Socially Disadvantaged Learners and Languages of Education, Council of Europe 7. Sanjeev Kumar, Inclusive Classroom and Social Diversity in India, Myths and Challenges, Journal of Indian Research 8. The Value of Inclusive Education https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/explainers/value-inclusive-education 9. UNESCO Office Dakar and Regional Bureau for Education in Africa. 2011. Planner’s guide for the introduction of African languages and culture in the education system. Dakar: BREDA. 10. What is Inclusive Education? https://inclusiveeducation.ca/about/what-is-ie/