Unit 6 Study Notes.docx

Unit 6 Study Notes De Tracy wanted to develop a science of belief; one that explains, predicts, and organizes our political beliefs in a way like what Newton had done for our beliefs about the physical world. If possible, we could understand and possibly even change what people think by looking at,...

Unit 6 Study Notes De Tracy wanted to develop a science of belief; one that explains, predicts, and organizes our political beliefs in a way like what Newton had done for our beliefs about the physical world. If possible, we could understand and possibly even change what people think by looking at, or altering, the stimuli around them. It also means that, in one sense, we’re all ideological all the time, since we can’t help having ideas that are shaped by our natural and social environments. On this view, having an ideology is inevitable and the only real question is which one we have. Traditional and Western Ideologies The foundations of liberalism were laid in two important works: Hobbes’ Leviathan (1651) and Locke’s Two Treatises of Government (1689). Hobbes presents a pessimistic view of human nature and argues that the state is necessary to reign in the natural tendencies of humans and to create a social order that allows for their preservation. Locke’s political philosophy is markedly different to Hobbes. He did not accept Hobbes’ pessimistic view of human nature. In Locke’s vision, even in the state of nature, human beings are moral agents. In contrast to Hobbes’ view of the state of nature, Locke’s understanding includes many of the concepts found in civil society, such as law, rights, obligations, and property. Like liberalism, conservatism rose out of the “age of revolution” in the 18th century. In thinking through the implications of the French Revolution, Edmund Burke concluded that such a reaction against tradition and established order would lead to ruin. Burke, like other conservatives, was concerned not so much about the change in political order, but rather that such systemic change would lead to disorganization and the collapse of society. Socialism refers to an ideology where everyone contributes to the collective good and all benefit from the equitable distribution of public goods. Socialism envisions a relatively peaceful creation of a new social order. Regarding the “end” goals, socialism considers the retention of the state as an acceptable, and indeed favourable, objective. As an ideology, nationalism holds the cultural unit as the foundation of political life. It sees the relationship between community and individual as self-evident. It is rooted in one’s sense of loyalty to the nation. A sense of nationalism emerges with a largely homogeneous population with a desire to distinguish itself from other national identities. As a political movement, nationalism seeks to create or preserve a “nation-state” and to protect a unity of individuals believed to be at risk. Fascism is an ideology that repudiates liberal values such as equality and representative government and subordinates the individual to an all-encompassing political order. Instead of emphasizing liberalism’s belief in the rule of law, fascism calls for the rule of a powerful elite that embodies the “will” of a nation as defined by the elite. Though the term “anarchy” implies an absence of government, it does not imply the absence of peace and order. Rather, anarchism – as an ideology – stresses the moral authority of the individual and criticizes state interference that minimizes our autonomy. Indeed, most anarchists believe that life would be more peaceful without government. Alternative ideologies Postmodernism is often understood as a critique of traditional Western ideologies rather than an ideology itself. Associated with philosophers such as Foucault and Derrida, it argues for a heightened sensitivity to the opinions and worldviews of others. Feminism grew from a concern with “equal rights for women” into a set of demands concerning the status of women in every aspect of life. Equal treatment for women is a liberal objective, since liberalism calls for equal rights and freedoms for all humans. However, few liberal philosophers – except for J.S. Mill – dealt with the issue. The right to vote was not the end for the feminist struggle. Since then, the struggle has evolved from voting rights to a series of other issues. And the ideology of feminism has changed to more complex political, social, and economic thought. Environmentalism grew in prominence in Europe and North America in the 1980s, focusing on the effect of industrial development on the environment. Environmentalism is opposed to many aspects of our consumerist lifestyle and is critical of unconstrained economic growth. Underlying this is the idea of sustainable development, which promotes a lifestyle that uses renewable rather than non-renewable resources so that economic growth can be sustained indefinitely. One of the latest waves of multicultural theory has called for improving the status of minority groups in ways that go above and beyond liberal ideas of simply redistributing wealth and opportunities. While the appropriate response to the marginalized status of some groups may involve wealth redistribution, this may not be enough, when a person suffers harm because their culture is disrespected, the solution may lie in elevating the status of that culture through its public and political celebration or acknowledgment. Religious beliefs have always had an important effect on ideologies. Fundamentalists promote a traditional interpretation of their faith and some attempt to impose a strict moral code on their societies. In opposition to liberalism, many fundamentalists seek to reverse the separation between church and state. Ontology vs Epistemology Ontology and epistemology are two fundamental concepts in philosophy that deal with knowledge and reality. Here’s how you can differentiate between them: Ontology: Ontology is the study of what exists. It explores various kinds and structures of entities that inhabit our world. It answers questions like “What is the fundamental nature of reality?” and "What entities exist?". Ontology is about the beings in the world. Epistemology: Epistemology is the study of knowledge. It probes into the nature, origin, and scope of knowledge. It investigates questions such as “What is knowledge?” and "How do we acquire it?". Epistemology is about our thoughts about those beings. In other words, while ontology is concerned with the actual structure of reality, epistemology centers on how we come to know that reality. So, ontology answers the question “What is it?” while epistemology asks, "How do we know what it is?".