Unit 4 Summary.docx

Unit 4 Summary This unit introduces the concept of sociological theories, which are different perspectives or explanations of how society impacts human life. These theories, developed over time and shaped by their historical context, are a common thread across all subdisciplines of sociology. The unit also delves into the history of sociology, highlighting its emergence as a social science during the 18th century, a period of profound social change known as the Enlightenment. This era was characterized by a break from tradition and an emphasis on rationality over inherited hierarchy. Enlightenment thinkers championed the idea of progress, believing that humans could improve their quality of life rather than accepting the status quo. This belief led to the application of scientific methods, previously used only in natural sciences, to the social world, giving rise to social sciences like sociology. In essence, sociological theories and methods are tools that sociologists use to understand and explain social life. They do not merely describe social phenomena but provide explanations for them. The unit underscores the importance of these theories and methods in the study of sociology. Simultaneously, there was the rise of democracy and the Industrial Revolution. The formation of the United States in 1776 and the French Revolution in 1789 marked significant shifts from feudal systems to democracies, where power was vested in the people. This period saw the recognition of inalienable human rights and the belief that every individual had the right to participate in societal structuring. The Industrial Revolution, occurring from the late 18th to the early 19th century, brought about significant changes. The privatization of lands led to urbanization as displaced serfs and peasants moved to cities. This urban wage-earning labor force marked a shift from subsistence living under feudalism to wage labor in an industrialized society. The Industrial Revolution also saw technological advancements, applying scientific knowledge to solve everyday problems and improve quality of life. This period marked a transition from an agrarian society to an urban industrial society, viewed as progress and an embodiment of Enlightenment ideals. The belief that people could control their own destiny was further reinforced during this time. There was also the rise of capitalism and the impact of colonialism on the development of sociology. Capitalism, a new economic system compared to feudalism, emphasized private ownership and production for profit rather than subsistence. This shift led to mass production and the selling of goods for profit, marking a significant departure from the feudal economic system. The encounter of Europeans with other cultures during the era of colonialism and imperialism raised questions about the profound differences in social systems across different societies. This led to more systematic and thorough thinking about comparative social structures, contributing to the origins of sociology. These upheavals, along with advanced scientific knowledge, technological progress, and production capabilities, marked the beginning of what is known as modernity. Sociology, in many ways, is an attempt to explain this rise of modernity. It seeks to understand the social changes and developments that characterized this era. Founders of Sociology Auguste Comte, a French thinker, is a key figure in the formation of sociology. He coined the term “sociology” in 1838 and promoted the philosophy of science and positivism, which asserts that only empirical, scientific knowledge can be considered valid. Comte proposed that just as there are laws governing the physical realm, there must also be laws for the social realm. He was interested in two aspects of society: social statics, or what remains constant (now referred to as social order or structure), and social dynamics, or what changes (now referred to as social change). Despite his radical views towards the end of his life, such as claiming sociology as the new religion of science and positioning sociologists as societal priests, Comte’s contributions to the discipline are foundational. His concepts continue to shape the field of sociology today. Herbert Spencer, a 19th-century English sociologist, is often described as a social evolutionist. He was heavily influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution and applied this thinking to society, leading to his label as a social Darwinist. Spencer coined the term “survival of the fittest,” applying it to societal evolution. In fact, Darwin never said this, Spencer did. Spencer believed in non-interference with natural selection, even in the social realm. He opposed social reform and argued against supporting the weak in society, believing that only the strong should survive for society to progress. This radical notion led him to be viewed as a conservative, right-wing intellectual. Critics argue that Spencer’s theories were a legitimization of the British Empire of the 19th century, viewing it as the pinnacle of social evolution. Both Spencer and Auguste Comte, were more popular in their time than today, with contemporary sociologists often viewing them as eccentric and egocentric. They both practiced “cerebral hygiene,” refusing to read others’ works to avoid contaminating their own thoughts. Like many other disciplines, sociology has historically championed the academic work of males and contributed to gender inequality, despite being a counter to social inequality. Harriet Martineau, a British woman born into a wealthy English family, was one of the early female sociologists. Despite societal norms that discouraged intellectual pursuits for women, she made significant contributions to sociology. Despite her background, she was still constrained by all the norms for women to not be intellectual, to not be educated. She would hide her writing underneath her sewing because that is what women were supposed to do. Martineau translated Auguste Comte’s major works into English, with Comte himself admitting that her translations were superior. She was committed to making the science of society accessible to the public, not just intellectuals. She was a vocal critic of social evils, arguing against slavery, advocating for better working conditions for factory workers during the Industrial Revolution, and fighting for women’s rights, including suffrage. By the end of her life, Martineau had written 50 books and 1600 articles, many of which focused on what she termed the “sufferers of society” - the mentally ill, criminals, the handicapped, the poor, and alcoholics. Despite the sexism prevalent in early sociology, Martineau’s work left a lasting impact on the discipline. Jane Addams, an American sociologist, was one of the first women to graduate from a university. She is known for founding Hull House in the slums of Chicago, a center dedicated to social activism and academics, helping the disadvantaged of society. Addams advocated for women’s suffrage and was a pacifist, arguing for peace in international relations. Despite her intellectual equality, her gender prevented her from joining the faculty at the University of Chicago. Towards the end of her life, she was affectionately known as “Saint Jane”. However, her pacifist stance during World War One led to a shift in public opinion against her. Despite this, she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931 for her contributions. The Classical Big Three Karl Marx, often recognized as one of the three most influential founders of sociology, described himself as a philosopher and a revolutionary. Interestingly, he did not think of himself as a sociologist. There were not many recognized sociologists in his day. He is known for his quote, “Philosophers have hitherto only interpreted the world in various ways. The point, however, is to change it,” highlighting his desire to effect change. Marx, who some consider more of an economist than a philosopher, introduced the concept of historical materialism. This radical idea posits that society and social relations are determined not by ideas and values, but by the economic structure in which we live. He argued that the social conditions people inhabit, such as living in a nomadic hunting and gathering society versus an urbanized, industrialized, capitalist society, determine their thoughts and beliefs. Marx’s historical materialism focuses on the material and social conditions of life as formative of our ideas and beliefs, a reversal of the commonly held belief that our ideas shape our social conditions. This proposition, which contradicted the views of his teacher, the German idealist Hegel, was considered very radical. Karl Marx, also focused on social class and its role in structuring society. He believed that social class, based on the ownership of the means of production, was the engine that drove history. Marx saw history as a series of class struggles, a view he expressed in the opening line of the Communist Manifesto. Marx also introduced the concept of infrastructure versus superstructure. He argued that the economic system (infrastructure) shapes all other aspects of society (superstructure), including law, politics, religion, art, and philosophy. For instance, he viewed religion as a part of the superstructure, serving to comfort people affected by the economic system. Despite the polarizing views on Marx, his influence on sociology and his contributions to understanding how society evolves are undeniable. Emile Durkheim, another of the three most influential founders of sociology, made significant contributions to the field. He distinguished sociology from psychology by defining sociology as the study of interactions among people, while psychology focuses on what happens inside an individual. Durkheim also established sociology as a social science, emphasizing its empirical nature and its reliance on observation rather than solely on rationality, thereby distinguishing it from philosophy. One of Durkheim’s main ideas was the concept of “social facts”. These are norms and values that exist outside of individuals but exert a coercive influence on them. Social facts, according to Durkheim, are independent of any one individual and have a life of their own. They shape behavior and are present regardless of whether individuals adhere to or deviate from them. These social facts form an inevitable reality about how society functions, regardless of whether individuals acknowledge them or not. In Durkheim’s words, “A social fact is every way of acting, fixed or not, capable of exercising on the individual an external constraint; or again, every way of acting which is general throughout a given society, while at the same time existing in its own right independent of its individual manifestations.” This highlights the external and coercive nature of social facts. He also introduced the idea of Division of Labor in Society: Durkheim was interested in the evolution of society from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity. Mechanical solidarity refers to a non-specialized society where everyone does the same thing and believes the same thing. Organic solidarity, on the other hand, refers to modern societies where there is specialized interdependence. Everyone is a specialist in something, leading to interdependence as we rely on others for things, we cannot do ourselves. He also discussed Anomie: This term, meaning normlessness, was used by Durkheim to describe a state in modern society where norms have lost their regulatory power. He believed that we now live in a state of anomie, characterized by aimlessness and purposelessness due to a loss of moral control. Durkheim stated, “Man is a moral being only because he lives in society. Let all social life disappear, and morality will disappear with it.” Durkheim conducted a famous study on suicide, noting systematic differences in suicide rates across different demographic groups. He attributed these differences to anomie, suggesting that those less integrated into society are more likely to take their own lives in despair. The text also mentions Harriet Martineau, who wrote about the variables of suicide and scientific research methodology before Durkheim but was ignored due to her gender. This highlights a sad truth about the history of sociology. Max Weber, the last of the three most influential founders of sociology, is known for his extensive knowledge in various fields such as economics, law, philosophy, history, and religion. He disagreed with Karl Marx’s view that the economic structure is the primary driver of society, arguing instead that society is too complex to be explained by a single cause. Weber introduced two main methodological ideas: Interpretive Sociology or “verstehen”: Weber advocated for sociology to not just describe and explain behavior, but to understand its meaningfulness. Since he was German, he used a German word, which means to understand deeply, it is a deep, empathetic understanding of not just what people do, but why they do it. He emphasized the importance of understanding the subjective meaning of people’s behavior. This approach, known as interpretive sociology, contrasts with Durkheim’s focus on social facts. It is not enough to know that people commit suicide and collect data on it, we must emphasize the why. Rejection of Positivism: Weber disagreed with the positivism promoted by Comte and Durkheim. He believed in understanding the deeper, subjective meanings of social behavior, rather than just describing it. This view was later echoed by 20th-century anthropologist Clifford Geertz, who saw culture as “webs of significance” spun by humans, and sociology as an interpretive science in search of meaning. Weber’s contributions to sociology extend beyond these ideas, but his emphasis on understanding the meaning of behavior and his rejection of positivism are key aspects of his sociological methodology. Max Weber also argued that sociology should be value-free, objective, and ethically neutral. He believed that sociology should aim to describe, explain, and interpret social phenomena without making value judgments. This perspective contrasts sharply with Karl Marx’s activist stance, which involved making value judgments and seeking to change the world. Weber saw the goal of sociology as advancing understanding, not revolutionizing or reforming society. He believed that sociologists should strive for objectivity, even though we acknowledge that being completely value-free is impossible. Contemporary Theoretical Perspectives Sociology operates on three levels of analysis: Macro Level: This is the study of large patterns formed by large groups of people over a long period of time. Examples include the economy, indigenous relations throughout history, and processes like urbanization and industrialization. This level generally studies slow-changing social systems and is associated with social statics or social order. Meso Level: This is the middle level of scale, studying not-so-large groups, but organizations and communities. It examines what happens in larger contexts like corporations, leagues, or towns. Micro Level: This level studies small groups of people and face-to-face interactions, such as those in a love affair, sports team, family, or classroom. These are more transitory, temporary encounters that individuals directly experience. The interaction at the micro level is influenced by the macro level. These three levels are interconnected, each influencing the others. Understanding these levels helps to provide a comprehensive view of sociological phenomena. Contemporary theoretical perspectives in sociology differ significantly from classical sociology. While classical sociology focuses on individual theorists, contemporary sociology encompasses entire schools of thought, with many people contributing to each perspective. There is no single unifying paradigm in sociology. Instead, there are multiple theoretical perspectives that each examine different aspects of the social world. These perspectives start with different problems, ask different questions, and focus on different things, leading to varied interpretations of social reality. Each theoretical perspective is neither definitive nor comprehensive. They offer different viewpoints on the same reality, leading to profoundly different interpretations. This diversity of perspectives is a characteristic feature of contemporary sociology. Here are the basic three. Structural Functionalism Society is viewed as a stable, orderly system composed of several interrelated parts, each performing a function that contributes to the overall stability of society. This perspective sees society as a structure, with each part playing a specific role to sustain the whole. For example, Durkheim argued that religion, as a structure, performs the function of creating social cohesion. Similarly, in a car engine or the human body, each part contributes a specific function to the whole. Functions in society can be categorized into three types: Manifest Functions: These are known and intended by the group. They represent the immediate, obvious functions of a part of society. Latent Functions: These are unknown and unintended by the group. They represent the less obvious functions that, while not immediately apparent, still contribute to society. For instance, the latent function of a rain dance might be social cohesion, even if it doesn’t bring rain. Dysfunctions: These are aspects of society that cause harm. Even if a part of society has more benefits than harms, recognizing the harm it does could lead to changes. This perspective emphasizes that society is complex, with each part playing a role in maintaining stability, whether that role is immediately apparent (manifest), less obvious (latent), or harmful (dysfunctional). Here are three activities/choices: Having children Going out to eat Volunteering for an organization List the manifest, latent, and dysfunctions of each. Having Children Manifest Functions: Providing love and companionship, continuation of the family line, and personal fulfillment. Latent Functions: providing a sense of purpose and meaning to life, perpetuation of humans, creating future members of the workforce, and creates jobs for teachers and daycare centers. So supports societal structures and community bonds. Dysfunctions: Potential for financial strain, emotional stress, and societal pressure. Creates gender inequality, since women still tend to have to care for children. Thus, this may contribute to gender wage pay gap and reduced career progression. It may also contribute to overpopulation and environmental issues. Going Out to Eat Manifest Functions: Satisfying hunger and socializing with others. Latent Functions: Supporting local businesses, exploring cultural diversity through food, and providing a break from cooking and cleaning. Dysfunctions: It can lead to overconsumption and unhealthy eating habits, it may be expensive, and it can contribute to food waste and environmental issues. Volunteering for an Organization Manifest Functions: Contributing to a cause or community and gaining personal satisfaction. Latent Functions: Helps retirees be more productive and youth without work experience. -Organization saves money which benefits its administration -Social service Dysfunctions: It can lead to burnout if not balanced with other life responsibilities, it may displace paid workers, and long-term volunteering without employment may be financially troubling. Structural functionalism a dominant perspective in sociology, peaking in the mid-20th century, but has since declined in popularity. It tends to justify the existing social structure and power differentials by focusing on their functions in maintaining social order. It excels at analyzing social order and static aspects of society. However, it falls short in analyzing change and conflict, the social dynamics, as it inherently supports the status quo. Conflict theory Another major theoretical perspective in sociology, is built on the work of Karl Marx. Unlike structural functionalism, which claims value neutrality, conflict theory does not. It views society as a product of the struggle for power between different vested interest groups. Key points of conflict theory include: Struggle for Power: Conflict theorists focus on the power dynamics between groups. They examine who controls scarce resources, decision-making power, and wealth. Instability of Social Order: Unlike structural functionalism, which views social order as stable, conflict theory sees social order as fluid, fragile, and constantly in flux. Beneficiaries of Existing Arrangements: Conflict theory asks who benefits most from the existing social arrangements. It challenges the notion that societal structures are functional for everyone, highlighting dysfunctions and disparities. Positive Aspects of Conflict: Conflict theory recognizes that conflict can have positive effects, such as focusing attention on problems that need to be solved, energizing people to act, and uniting people around common causes. Here are three key aspects of conflict theory: Ideology: Ideologies are coherent sets of interrelated beliefs that explain and justify social conditions. For example, a liberal ideology explains success and failure due to individual ability and effort, promoting individualism. Societies often have a dominant ideology and several counter ideologies. False Consciousness: This concept refers to a perception of a situation that is not in accord with reality. For instance, if an individual’s failure is due to systemic issues rather than personal shortcomings, believing in the liberal ideology of individual responsibility would be a false consciousness. Alienation: Conflict theory pays attention to those who feel powerless or live with a sense of meaninglessness, a state Marx termed as “alienation”. This could be experienced by individuals who feel disconnected from their work or feel that they have no control over their lives. While both structural functionalism and conflict theory are macro-level perspectives, they view society differently. Structural functionalism sees society as a harmonious and integrated whole, while conflict theory views it as a site of constant power struggle. Conflict theory has become the dominant perspective in sociology, with subcategories like feminism and critical race theory examining specific areas of conflict. Symbolic Interactionism Symbolic Interactionism focuses on individuals’ everyday face-to-face interactions and the meanings they attach to these interactions. It posits that society is not an external entity that shapes individuals, but rather, it is the product of continuous interactions between individuals. In contrast to macro perspectives like structural functionalism and conflict theory, which suggest individuals are passively shaped by societal structures, symbolic interactionism sees individuals as active creators of society. The term “symbolic” refers to the use of symbols, such as words, gestures, or signs, that represent something else. People do not respond directly to the world, but rather to their interpretation of it. This perspective emphasizes the interpretive meaning of social actions, suggesting that no social action has a predetermined definitive meaning, but is always subject to interpretation. For instance, the same action, such as fighting against an invading force, can be interpreted differently based on the context, as seen in the example of the Taliban being labeled as “freedom fighters” in the 1985 Russian Invasion or “terrorists” in 2015 when the U.S. invaded Afghanistan. This perspective, sometimes referred to as “soft sociology,” is built on Max Weber’s interpretive sociology and focuses on understanding why people act the way they do, rather than relying solely on hard social facts or statistics. The main ideas of Symbolic Interactionism are: a) Definition of the Situation: People respond according to their interpretation or definition of the situation, not the situation itself. As W.I. Thomas stated, “That which is defined as real is real in its consequences.” This means that our perceptions and interpretations shape our reality. b) Taking the Role of the Other: In interactions, individuals try to understand each other by placing themselves in the other’s shoes. This involves anticipating the other’s perspectives, attitudes, and feelings. This interpretive process is crucial for meaningful interaction and self-development. c) Significant Others and Generalized Others: Initially, our interactions and role-taking involve significant others (parents, family, friends). Over time, this extends to the generalized other, which represents society as a whole. This shift shapes our interpretations and understanding of social situations. These three concepts form the core of Symbolic Interactionism, emphasizing the interpretive nature of social interactions and the active role of individuals in shaping their social reality.

Unit 4 Summary.docx

Related

Transcript

Upgrade to continue