Unit 4 Notes Part 2 (Draft) PDF

A state is separated from its neighbors by a boundary, an invisible line on a map that marks the extent of the state\'s territory.   Boundaries are completely surrounded by an individual state to mark the outer limits of territorial control and to give it a distinctive shape.   Historically fron...

A state is separated from its neighbors by a boundary, an invisible line on a map that marks the extent of the state\'s territory.   Boundaries are completely surrounded by an individual state to mark the outer limits of territorial control and to give it a distinctive shape.   Historically frontiers separated states.   A frontier is a zone where no state exercises complete political control.   It is a tangible geographic area, whereas a boundary is a thin line.   Modern communication systems permit countries to monitor and guard boundaries effectible, even in inaccessible locations.   **What are the 3 types of boundary?**   Cultural boundary   -------------------- --- Geometric boundary   Physical boundary     +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Type of boundary & | Description & | Pictures & map | | example | explanation. | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **Cultural | *Why is Ireland |   | | boundary:** | divided in two?* | | | | | | | **Religion** |   | | | | | | | Religion dividing |   | | | Ireland and Northern | | | | Ireland |   | | | | | | | | *How does religion | | | | divide Ireland?* | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Geometric |   |   | | boundary:** | | | | | | | | South Pole/ | | | | territorial claims in | | | | Antarctica. | | | | | | | |   | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Cultural | *Why is Cyprus |   | | boundary:** | divided in two?* | | | | | | | **Ethnic boundary** |   | | | | | | | Cyprus |   | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | *How does ethnic | | | | background divide | | | | Cyprus?* | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Physical | *Describe an example |   | | boundaries:** | of a desert that acts | | | | as a physical | | | Desert | boundary between | | | | countries.* | | | Mountains | | | | |   | | | Water (sea/ocean) | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | *Describe an example | | | | of a mountain range | | | | that acts as a | | | | physical boundary | | | | between countries.* | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | *Describe an example | | | | of a body of water | | | | that acts as a | | | | physical boundary | | | | between countries.* | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+     ***[Extension work:]***   **What is the United Nation\'s Law of the Seas?**   **How does this create a boundary in oceans?**      **[Case study: Territorial disputes in the Arctic ]**       In 1982, the UN Convention of the Law of the Sea permitted countries to submit claims inside the Arctic circle by 2009.   Canada, Russia, Denmark, Iceland, Norway and the United States make conflicting claims on the Arctic.   The heart of the dispute is the Lomonosov Ridge which runs 1800km across the polar region.   The ridge rises several thousand meters above the floor of the Arctic sea and in some places is only a few hundred meters below the current sea level.   Russia and Denmark (which controls Greenland) both claim the Lomonosov ridge as an extension of their respective territory.   **Task 3 - answer these questions in full sentences.**     1. Why do the countries adjacent to the Arctic Ocean want to claim parts of the seafloor, such as the Lomonosov Ridge?       1. Referring to a globe or world map, explain how the melting of the Arctic\'s Ocean sea ice due to climate change could affect global shipping routes.       1. Which country do you believe has the right to claim the territory of the Arctic (North Pole)? Explain your ideas.       1. Research your own example of a border/ boundary dispute. a. Include a map of the effected area. b. Description of the dispute. **Historical origins of world political boundaries**     ***Boundary process:*** **Definition:** when borders are claimed, negotiated or captured. **Delimitation:** when borders are put on a map. **Demarcation:** When markers are placed on the ground to show where the borders lie.         **[Antecedent boundary:]** a boundary line that exists from prehistoric times. Such as the French-Spanish border along the Pyrenees. Or the USA- Canada border drawn before significant settlement of the area (also known as the 49th parallel). **[Relic boundary:]** former state boundaries that still have implied political or cultural meaning. The Berlin Wall would be an example as it no longer represents a political boundary, but it is still a relic of the division between East and West Berlin. **[Subsequent boundary:]** lines resulting from conflict or cultural changes, such as war and migration. German- Polish border after 1945 would be an example. **[Superimposed boundary]**: lines laid down for political reasons over existing cultural boundaries. Sub-Saharan Africa after the Berlin conference of 1884. **Different types of border disputes**   **Definitional:** when border treaties are interpreted two different ways by states. An example of this is the Russian-Japanese Kuril Islands that fell under soviet control in 1945. **Locational:** when the border moves, like a river changing course or a lake drying up. India-Bangladesh territory along the Ganges Brahmaputra river delta. **Operational:** when borders are agreed on but passage across the border is a problem. Consider the restrictions on global travel during 2020-2021 with COVID.   **Allocational:** when a resources lies on two sides of a border, it's the division of who gets what. Mexico-USA river allocations for irrigation and drinking water on the Colorado River and Rio Grande River. The South China Sea dispute involves overlapping territorial claims by China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, and Taiwan over islands, reefs, and waters. Key issues include China's expansive \"nine-dash line\", rich resources, and strategic sea lanes.   Despite a 2016 UN arbitration ruling rejecting China's claims, tensions persist due to China's militarization of artificial islands and overlapping EEZs under UNCLOS. The area is vital for global trade, energy reserves, and regional security, with frequent U.S. patrols challenging China's assertions. The dispute remains unresolved, fueling regional and global tensions.   +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Boundary Type** | **Description of | **Example of dispute | | | boundary type.** | (ongoing dispute | | | | today or is it now | | | | peaceful?) Make sure | | | | you describe the | | | | example.** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **Antecedent |   |   | | boundary** | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Geometric |   |   | | boundary** | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Physical boundary** |   |   | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Cultural/Ethnograph |   |   | | ic | | | | boundary** |   | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Relic boundary** |   |   | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Superimposed |   |   | | boundary** | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |   | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **Territorial Morphology**   *Term refers to the shape of a country on a map.*     **Annexation of states:** is another term used to describe the addition of territory as a result of a land purchased or when a territorial claim is extended through incorporation (sometimes by force).   Russia\'s annexation of Crimea is an example of this.     **Capitals**   Capitals are the seat of power of the government of that country.   Over the course of a country\'s history, the capital of a country might change.   Sometimes capitals will be the seat of government of that country, but not always the wealthiest city or most famous city in the country (think NYC and Washington D.C).   Some countries might also have more than one capital to represent the different regions of the country.   South Africa has 3 capitals: Pretoria, Bloemfontein & Cape Town.     Countries might occasionally change the location of their capital, this might be due to a shift in political power.   New capitals are often planned capital cities which are located in places where old cities did not previously exist.   Washington D.C is the capital of the USA, but historically NYC was the capital!     Washington D.C was founded in July 1790, it was established by the constitution of the USA to serve as the nations capital. **[Global governance of states]**     **States compete for many reasons, including the control of territory, access to trade, resources and influence over other states.**   **States may also form alliances with other states to improve their power.**   **Over time, states competing has led to conflict and two world wars.**   **The most important global forum for cooperation among states is the United Nations. This was created at the end of World War 2.**   **The early years of the UN were tested by the Cold War.** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Question** | **Answer** | +===================================+===================================+ | 1. **What year was the UN |   | | established?** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 1. **Where is the UN HQ?** |   | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 1. **How are countries |   | | represented at the UN?** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 1. **Give examples of the |   | | programs/ organizations that | | | form part of the UN.** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 1. **For one of the UN\'s |   | | organizations, explain how it | | | helps people around the | | | world.** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 1. **What are the UN\'s |   | | sustainable development | | | goals?** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+   **The UN was organized in 1945 with 51 original members, including 49 sovereign states. By 2011 193 countries were part of the UN.**   1. **16 extra countries joined having been liberated from Germany following world war 2.** 1. **17 extra states joined from former colonies of Britian or France.**   1. **26 countries joined due to the fall of the Soviet Union.**     **The UN aims to keep world peace. It has intervened in conflicts between or within member states, it can authorize military action and peacekeeping actions.**   **UN members can vote to establish a peacekeeping force and request that states contribute to military forces.**   **Despite some criticisms, the UN represents a forum where there has been rapid change across the world, it represents a place where countries can meet to discuss their differences.** **National scale types of government:**     1. **Anocracy:** a country that is not fully democratic or fully autocratic, but displays a mixture of the two. 2. **Autocracy:** a country that is run according to the interests of the ruler. 3. **Democracy:** a country in which citizens vote to elect leaders and can run for office.       Element Democracy Autocracy ----------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Selection of leaders Institutions and procedures through which citizens can express effective preferences about alternative policies and leaders. Leaders are selected according to clearly defined (often hereditary) rules of succession from within the established political elite. Citizen participation Institutionalized constraints on the exercise of power by the executive. Citizens participation is sharply restricted or suppressed. Checks and balances Guarantee of civil rights to all citizens in their daily lives and in acts of political participation. Leaders excessive power with no meaningful checks from legislative, judicial or civil society intuitions.       **USA and China**   You are going to create a case study fact file on comparing the structure of governance in the USA and China.     -What type of governance does the country have? Democracy or Autocracy?   -How does the country select their leaders? Describe fully how they select their leaders, what is the process.   -Who is the current leader of that country? What are their aims for their country?   -How do citizens participate in the governance of their country?   -Is the country split into federal states or is it a unitary state?   -If there are federal states, explain how they are governed.   Within a country they can be structured into unitary states or federal states.   The size of the country does not dictate whether it is a unitary or federal state.   Belgium is a relatively small country by size and is a federal state to account for the two main cultural groups: Flemish and Walloons, whereas China is a unitary state to promote one-party rule and communist values.   **[UNITARY state:]** Most power is placed in the hands of central government officials. A unitary state in principal works best in a smaller country characterized by few internal cultural differences & a strong sense of national unity.   Unitary states are common in Europe, such as France which as a strong tradition for unitary government in which a very strong national government dominates local government decisions. **[FEDERAL states:]** Strong power is allocated to units of local government in a federal state.   In principal, the federal state works best in very large states when the national capital may be too remote to provide effective control over isolated regions.   Most of the world\'s largest states are federal: USA, Russia, Canada, India, Brazil etc.       **[Different types of governance]**   **Republics -**these are countries that do not have an aristocracy or monarchy in power. These governments are fully under control of the electorate.   Republics will generally have a separation of powers.   The executive, legislative and judicial branches of government being held by different people to keep them in check.   It can be very inefficient, but it can reduce potential corruption.   Republics will tend to have a form of constitution - a set of written rules.   Wealthy business people and corporations have replaced aristocracy in terms of control of money, land and resources. The purchase of political influence (especially in USA politics) can influence legislation and lead to uneven power relations.   In the USA, the President s both head of state and head of government.     The USA is a democracy that has a form of parliamentary system where different lawmaking bodies are elected to the house.   In the USA, there are 435 seats of the House of Representatives that is apportioned relative to each state\'s population.   Every state is divided into a number of congressional districts, each district having one seat in Congress. California has the most at 53 and Wyoming (the least populated state) has the least at 1.   In the US, presidential elections are decided through voting by the Electoral college.   Every 10 years following the census, the US reapportions the 435 seats of the House of Representatives.   Most of the time, reappointment mapping is straightforward with clear lines on the map, other times it might result in irregular shaped districts that are highly elongates and prorupt. This is known as Gerrymandering. Gerrymandering is now more common in the USA as they try to stack votes in favor or one particular party in a district. ***Explain the role of Gerrymandering in altering the results of elections in the USA.*** ***Gerrymandering is a process that occurs every 10 years following the completion of the census in the USA. This is reviewed by the Electoral College who will then look at the 435 voting districts in the USA. Gerrymandering may occur when the map of voting districts is unfairly redrawn to encourage voting results for one party over another.***     ***Or***   ***Outline the structure of governance in the USA.*** ***In the USA federal government it is split into three areas: legislative (congress and the House of Representatives), executive (The President) and judicial ( the supreme court). The President of the USA is the Head of State for the country and holds the most power, he can recommend laws to be passed to congress and the house of representatives. These laws then have to be passed by congress to become a formal law. The judicial (the supreme court) has the power to keep in check the president and congress according to the USA\'s constitution.*** ***Constitutional monarchy -*** The ruler of the country (King or Queen) remains the head of state but the leader of the elected parliament is the head of government as the Prime Minister or Premier who will then have Members of Parliament to be ministers in their government. In most constitutional monarchy\'s like the UK, the King retains the power to dismiss parliament, appoint judges, ambassadors and other officials. He is also the commander and chief of the military and retains significant land holdings and estates. However, compared to historical monarch\'s the King of the UK is more symbolic in his legislative role and holds smaller power in proposing new laws. **Question** **Response- write in full sentences!** ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- **When did the UK become a constitutional monarchy?**   **What was the Magna Carta?**   **What was feudalism in the UK?**   **What is the House of Lords in the UK?**   **What is the House of Commons in the UK?**   **Which other countries claim the British Monarch as their Head of State?**     **[Different types of governance: Communism ]**   Communism\'s ideas were to create a class free society where there were no inequalities in terms of wealth or power.   To do this the state would have all the land and industry and the government would direct economic productivity and everyone would earn the same amount of money regardless of labor position.   The first communist country was the USSR (Soviet Union).   In the Soviet Union, then leader Joseph Stalin led the country on 5-year economic plans which dictated the production of the country\'s economy.   By 1970, the USSR was starting to fall apart. The society in the USSR was still class based, with those who belonged to the Communist Party (6% of the population) gaining better favors such as nice cars, nicer hoes, and special stores to shop in.   Working class people in the USSR became resentful of those in the communist party and military who had a better quality of life.   There was also the problem of a lack of incentive in the system to motivate young people to work. In theory it didn\'t matter if you were a brain surgeon or a garbage collector, you all got the same pay.     +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Question** | **Response- write in full | | | sentences!** | +===================================+===================================+ | **When did the USSR form? Why did |   | | it form?** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Define communism.** |   | | | | |   |   | | | | | |   | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **What were the main objectives |   | | of communism in the USSR?** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Why did communism fail in the |   | | USSR?** | | | |   | | | | | |   | | | | | |   | | | | | |   | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **How is Russia governed today? |   | | Who is their leader?** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Supranationalism** is the concept of two or more sovereign states aligned together for a common purpose.   There are many **supranational organizations** with varying power.   The **United Nations is the largest** with the goal of world peace.   A further example, one where member states are very integrated is the **European Union (EU).**     Supernational states can influence the **TERRITORIALITY** of a place (the attempt by an individual or a group to affect, influence or control people in a geographical area). Following the end of the second world war in Europe many western European states wanted to form a greater alliance with each other to promote peace in Europe.   They did this by every integrating trade between western Europe to promote the interdependence of each countries economy for mutual benefit. These original countries shared similar levels of wealth (the UK, West Germany and France being the richest). These countries shared common cultural characteristics and work habits that promoted integration.   By 1973 they had created the European Economic Community (EEC) also known as the Common Market. These had eliminated all tariffs on trade goods between its 12 western European states.     By belonging to the EU countries abide by EU laws as well as their own countries laws.   One of the most controversial EU laws is the **Dublin Regulations**. This law determines which country is responsible for considering an application for an asylum seeker. The main rule is that an application is assessed by the first EU country the asylum seeker comes to. **The modern day EU has 5 key purposes:**   FREE TRADE UNION     OPEN BORDER POLICY     MONETARY UNION     JUDICIAL UNION     LEGISLATIVE AND REGULATORY BODIES   What is 'Brexit'?   The word 'Brexit' is a combination of 'Britain' and 'exit'. It's the process of Britain, also known as the United Kingdom (UK), leaving the European Union (EU). The UK includes England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.   Brexit has caused a huge amount of debate and controversy because it will probably affect trade, security, and UK immigration. In June 2016, the UK voted to leave the EU in something called a referendum. This is a general vote where a country's entire electorate is asked to weigh in on a single question, and the result directly influences the decision of the government.   What is the EU?   The European Union (EU) is a group of 28 countries in an economic and political union. It allows free trade and movement of people across all of its member states. A single market was created to increase trade between countries, leading to more jobs and lower-priced goods.    The EU was born from the legacy of World War II. Countries believed that if they were linked economically and constantly cooperated, then they were less likely to go to war. This led to the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC), founded by the Treaty of Rome in 1957 and signed by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany. Britain applied to join the EEC, but the French president Charles de Gaulle vetoed its application in 1963 and 1969.    The UK finally joined the EEC in 1973 under the Conservative government of Ted Heath, but even then its membership was debated. In 1975 the UK held its first referendum on its EEC membership. The Labour party was now in government, and it was divided over the issue of Europe. The new Prime Minister Harold Wilson promised to put the question to a referendum, and 67% of voters wanted to stay.    However, the role of the UK in the EU continued to be debated. Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher argued from 1979 that the UK was contributing too much to the EU budget. In 1984, Thatcher negotiated a reduction in British contributions to the EEC budget, called the 'rebate arrangement'.    In 1992, the British pound sterling fell in value so much that Britain was asked to leave the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM). The ERM was a system introduced by the EEC in 1979, to reduce the fluctuation of exchange rates between European countries. The aim was to achieve monetary stability, which was a step towards creating a single currency, the Euro. Britain never adopted this, but most of the EU started using it in January 1999. In 2004, ten new countries joined the EU, including eight from Eastern Europe, which saw an increase in EU citizens moving to the UK.   How did the Brexit vote happen?   The Brexit referendum In 2013, the UK's Conservative Prime Minister, David Cameron promised to hold a national referendum on the UK's EU membership.   He argued that the British people were disillusioned with the EU and that they should have a direct say. This took place in a context of economic uncertainty, just six years after the financial crisis of 2007-2008. Cameron believed that he could renegotiate the UK's relationship with the EU, so he could give the British people a choice between staying under new terms, or leaving completely.    Britons were asked to choose whether they wished to 'Leave' or 'Remain' in the EU. A Leave win was unprecedented; no country has ever fully left the EU before. 1985 saw Greenland leave, but it is within the kingdom of Denmark, which remained. The Brexit referendum was held on Thursday the 23rd June 2016. Voter turnout was 72.2% of the British electorate, with 52% voting leave and 48% choosing remain. Find a more detailed breakdown of the results here.   Why did people vote 'Leave'?   The Brexit referendum took place in the context of a refugee crisis in Europe, making migration levels a key issue at the time. To Brexit supporters, the prospect of leaving the EU was a promise to end the free movement of people into the UK and decrease the number of people moving here. Many Brexit voters saw the UK lacked sovereignty when it was part of the EU as EU laws could rank above UK laws.   Pro-Brexiteers claimed immigrants put too much pressure on public services in the UK, such as the National Health Service (NHS) and social welfare schemes. Many people disliked the way the European Parliament decided on rules the UK had to follow and wanted the UK to have more control over its own affairs.    Several different political organizations campaigned for the Leave vote. The UK Independence Party (UKIP), led by Nigel Farage, carried out an aggressive campaign based on anti-immigration views. It was not, however, affiliated with the official Vote Leave campaign, which included Boris Johnson and Michael Gove, amongst other key politicians.  The Vote Leave campaign was accused of breaking election laws and having used outright lies to sway the electorate. Johnson, one of the foremost players in the Leave campaign, organized a bus painted with the slogan: 'We send the EU £350m a week: let's fund our NHS instead'. It was later proven that this figure was false, but it did motivate some people to vote Leave.    Why did people vote 'Remain'? Many of the 48% of the British population who voted 'Remain' argued for the business benefits of being in the EU. They believed the single market system was good for the British economy, bringing in immigrants to develop the British workforce and public service projects. They also thought that being members of a wider economic and cultural community provided an element of security. The majority of people between the ages of 18 and 24 voted Remain. People over the age of 65 were more than twice as likely to vote Leave.   Brexit also drew calls for independence movements within the UK, with Scotland making a renewed effort for independence from the UK.   Brexit reignited calls for Scottish independence due to Scotland\'s overwhelming vote to remain in the EU, which contrasted sharply with the UK\'s decision to leave. Many Scots felt their interests were ignored by the UK government, especially as **Scotland\'s devolved government** had limited power to prevent Brexit\'s impact. The loss of EU membership, economic concerns, and political differences, particularly over issues like identity and sovereignty, prompted many to argue that Scotland should regain control over its future, possibly by becoming independent and rejoining the EU. This renewed push for independence was also fueled by frustration with being governed by a UK government that didn't reflect Scotland's political values.       **CENTRIPETAL FORCES**: are factors that hold together the social and political fabric of the state.     **CENTRIFUGAL FORCES**: are factors that tear apart the social and political fabric of the state.     In every country there are forces that work to both reinforce and destabilize the state.     - **Political beliefs of nationalism** - **A strong and well liked national leader** - **Ethnic, racial or religious differences/conflict** - **Political corruption** - **An effective and productive economy** - **Effective government social welfare programs** - **Natural disasters or a wartime defeat** - **Failing economic conditions**   **Task 2: highlight the below summary on Yugoslavia, identify the centrifugal and centripetal forces.**   Yugoslavia was a multi-ethnic state in South East Europe that existed from 1918 to its dissolution in the early 1990s.   Yugoslavia was created after the end of world war 1 in 1919, it had clustered several different ethnic and religious groups living together.   They had a strong leader in the country\'s early stages called Josip Tito, he represented the two largest ethnic groups and was a very influential leader who had a strong nationalistic belief in communism. These were some examples of centripetal forces that helped hold Yugoslavia together.   When Tito died in 1980, he left a power vacuum and a lack of multi-ethnic leaders to replace him. This opened up the way for nationalistic leaders to represent different ethnicities to try and seize power for themselves. The differences of ethnicity and religion & shared history of conflicts led to centrifugal forces that pulled the country apart. **[Reunification of countries]**   Occurs when nations or culture groups that were torn apart into separate states as a result of war or other historical events is reunified.   East and West Germany being the most famous example of a country that has been successfully reunified & the country prospered economically from reunification in 1991. **[Neocolonialism ]**   Word describes the modern form of colonialism, not based on political control but economic control.   The USA has few political territories, but it has long held economic control over nearly every nation in the western hemisphere, often by granting favored nations trade status to those neighbors who play by America\'s rules. China is also neocolonial, they have a significant presence in Africa, they have built lots of new infrastructure in Africa like railways in Nigeria and have built the African Union building in return for favorable mining contracts for Chinese businesses. **[Heartland-Rimland Model]**   The theory was developed in the early 1900s. It argues that controlling the Eurasian landmass, particularly the \'Heartland\' region is key to world domination.   The theory distinguishes between the resource rich landlocked heartland (an area of land also known as the Eastern European Steppe. A productive area of land that cultivates grain and timber across the Urals into Siberia.   It was then the proportion of land known as the Rimland which had old empires from Germany, Austro-Hungary and Romania that wanted to invade.   This concept influenced geopolitical strategy during the two world wars and the cold war.   The author of the theory, Mackinder stated that the borders between the Heartland and the Rimland were the borderlines of conflict zones, such as during WW2. **[Shatterbelt Theory:]**      1950 American geographer Saul Cohen proposed the Shatter belt theory.   He modified Mackinder\'s Heartland into the Pivot Area and Rimland into the Inner Crescent.   The rest of the world became known as the outer crescent.   His land based concept was that cold war conflicts would likely occur within the inner crescent.   His model accurately predicted numerous areas which became areas of conflict between 1950 and the end of the cold war in 1991.     **[Containment theory]**   Most often thought of in regards to China and Russia.   Conflict in areas as a result of Russia or China\'s attempt to create buffer zone states.   This would be land that would protect them by creating a surrounding buffer of sympathetic countries.   In 1947 it then became USA government policy to try to **contain** the spread of communism in these buffer zones that Russia and China were creating.   The USA and its allies would build a containment all around the core communist states.   Anytime that the USSR or China would attempt to expand into the realm of influence politically or militarily, the forces of NATO would be deployed to stop them. However, there were many examples of when the USA\'s containment policy failed, such as the Vietnam war in the 1970s, it failed to prevent the whole of Vietnam from becoming a communist state.