Unit 3 Study Guide Notes (1) PDF

Unit 3 Study Guide - Linkage Institutions (Chapters 13/14/15/16) a. Define linkage institution (and describe four examples) A linkage institution connects people to their government.Linkage Institutions basically translate inputs from the public into outputs from the policymaker...

Unit 3 Study Guide - Linkage Institutions (Chapters 13/14/15/16) a. Define linkage institution (and describe four examples) A linkage institution connects people to their government.Linkage Institutions basically translate inputs from the public into outputs from the policymakers,serve as a “bridge” between the public and the government, and help ensure that public preferences are placed on the government’s agenda. Four examples: Political parties – Organize people with similar beliefs to influence government. Interest groups – Advocate for specific causes or policies. Media – Share information and influence public opinion. Elections – Allow citizens to choose leaders and express preferences. These all help citizens express their opinions and influence policies. a. Define political party A political party is a group of people who share similar ideas about how the government should work and join together to win elections and make those ideas happen. b. Describe the attitude of the Framers (and the Constitution) toward political parties 1. The Framers of the Constitution disliked political parties, fearing they would cause division and put self-interest above the nation. They assumed parties would not form in America and worried party conflicts could harm the government’s legitimacy. In The Constitution evidence is shown throughout it that they disliked the ideas of political parties since it doesn’t mention parties, the Electoral College was designed to work without them, and leaders like Madison and Washington warned against them. c. Identify and describe the major functions of political parties To unite people with shared opinions and goals Recruit candidates for office- Parties recruit and select people who are qualified for office Assist party candidates - Fundraise and provide media and other advice and assistance Inform and motivate the public- Parties publish information about issues and candidates are designed to educate and motivate supporters.Parties simplify elections by helping people decide how to vote and parties encourage registering and voting. Develop platforms- Articulate and publish policy positions designed to attract public support. d. Describe the organizations of the two major US parties The two major U.S. parties, Democrats and Republicans, are organized at national, state, and local levels, each with a national committee, leaders, and networks to coordinate campaigns, policies, and fundraising. a.Define two-party system System in which only two parties have a realistic chance of winning elections; other “third” or “minor” parties exist but rarely win. b. Explain all possible reasons why the US has a persistent two-party system.(including these features of the US electoral system- plurality system, single-member districts, winner-take-all- and alternatives that would promote third parties such as:majority/runoff and proportional representation) Political Culture: Most Americans agree on basic principles like how the government should work, individual rights, and the role of government in the economy. This shared agreement reduces the need for many political parties. Tradition: The two-party system has been entrenched through generations of political socialization, becoming a cultural norm. Co-optation: Major parties adopt the ideas of third parties, making it harder for third parties to stay relevant. Legal Obstacles: Rules like the plurality system(requires parties to have a broad base of popular support since a majority is not required to win), single-member districts(eliminate parties without broad based support), and winner-take-all(The winner gets everything leaving no reward for runners-up) discourage third parties by requiring broad-based support to win. Alternatives include a majority/runoff system (requiring a majority vote) and proportional representation (allocating legislative seats based on party vote percentages). c.Describe the primary effects that third parties have (on elections or the two main parties) Third parties provide an outlet for people who are discontent with the system; all political systems need a “safety valve” for those who are unhappy with the system, and third parties sometimes play that role in the US. Third parties possibly increase participation in the political system by giving voters more choices. Third parties raise and focus on issues not being addressed by the two major parties. Changes the outcome of a Pres election a. Define realignment, define critical realigning election and identify the most important (actually, the only) such election in the last 100 years  Realignment- A sharp,lasting shift in the popular coalition supporting one or both parties resulting in a permanent or long-lasting change in the dominant party. Critical realigning election-An election in which a realignment occurs is called a critical election;sometimes they are called realigning elections The critical election/realignment that matters the most is that of 1932, because it led to several decades of Democratic Party Dominance that heavily influences our politics today. b. Define regional realignment, identify an important such realignment that occurred in the last 50 years Regional realignment-Regional realignment means a major shift in political support or party dominance in different areas of the country, often driven by changing issues, demographics, or values. An important regional realignment that occurred in the last 50 years was that of the slow-motion change in party loyalty among white southerners that took place over the course of the 1940s,1960s, and 1970s and eventually became permanent with southern support for Ronalds Reagan’s presidency in 1980 and 1984.Because it did not happen all in one election but rather over time and only in one part of the country, and because southerners continued to vote for Democrats in Congressional and state elections for a decade or two, political scientists refer to it as a regional realignment. c.Define unified and divided government, explain which one has been more common recently and why Unified government- occurs when one party controls both houses of congress and the presidency Divided government-occurs any time when that is not the case (when control of the legislative and executive branches is divided between the two major parties). This includes any time control of the two houses within congress is divided. a.Define primary election, open primary, closed primary, caucus(es), and general election Primary election-an election in which party members vote for their preferred candidate for their party General election-an election for deciding who will actually hold public office Open primary- Any registered voter, regardless of their party affiliation, can vote in any party's primary. (For example, a Democrat can vote in the Republican primary and vice versa.) Closed primary-Only voters who are registered with a specific political party can vote in that party's primary. (For example, only registered Republicans can vote in the Republican primary, and only registered Democrats can vote in the Democratic primary.) Caucus-a political meeting;a meeting in which party members meet to select their party’s candidates, the purpose of a caucus is the same as a primary election- an opportunity for party members to choose their favorite candidate to represent their party in the general election-but it is a meeting, with a more social atmosphere than an election Primary elections vs. Caucus- A primary election is an election meaning party members walk into a voting booth,vote privately for their favorite party candidate and go home and a caucus is where party members gather,socialize,talk politics, and eventually vote for their favorite party candidate.  b. Describe the entire presidential nomination process, including: Primaries and Caucuses: States hold elections (primaries) or meetings (caucuses) where voters choose their preferred candidate. New Hampshire and Iowa traditionally go first, giving them a special role in shaping the race.(Lowa 1st, and New Hampshire 2nd.) Delegates: Candidates earn delegates based on how well they do in primaries and caucuses. Delegates are party members who will vote for that candidate at the national convention. Winner-Take-All vs. Proportional Primaries: Winner-Take-All: The candidate with the most votes in a state gets all the delegates. Proportional: Delegates are divided based on the percentage of votes each candidate gets. Party Platform: At the national convention, the party adopts a platform, which is a set of key beliefs and policies they support. National Party Convention: Delegates from all states gather to officially select the party’s presidential candidate and approve the party platform. The candidate then runs in the general election. c.Describe the effects of the increased use of direct presidential primaries over the last 50/60 years, especially the rise of candidate-centered (as opposed to party-centered) campaigns The increased use of direct presidential primaries resulted in the increased role of the people in picking each party’s candidates,decreased role of party “bosses” in picking each party’s candidates, increased length of presidential campaigns,increased cost of campaigns and more candidate centered,rather than party-centered, campaigns.The increased use of direct presidential primaries over the last 50-60 years has shifted campaigns to be more focused on individual candidates rather than political parties, leading to candidate-centered campaigns where personal popularity and media influence play a bigger role. a. Define interest group and describe some of the different types of interest groups Interest group-a group of people with broad common interests who organize under a party name to nominate for office,work to win elections,and attempt to influence government and public policy. Types of interest groups include: Economic interest groups-organizations that work to influence government policies in ways that benefit their members financial interests. Public interest groups-organizations that work to promote causes or policies that they believe will benefit the general public.  Special/single-issue interest groups-organizations that focus on narrow issues and push for things that would only benefit their members/point of view. Government-related interest groups-organizations that represent various types of state and local governments found in the U.S. b. Explain the difference between political parties and interest groups Parties attempt to win elections and actually hold office, to gain power directly Interest groups attempt to influence those who hold power, to influence the government and public policy c.Explain why the US has so many interest groups (compared to most other countries) The US is economically and demographically diverse-there are many religious,cultural,regional,economic,professional, and other cleavages in American society;with so many different kinds of Americans, we have created many different interest groups to represent their views. Our First Amendment freedoms-speech,press,assembly, and petition- are exactly the rights necessary for interest groups to thrive. These rights are protected in the Constitution,therefore it would be hard to stop interest groups from operating even if we wanted to. There are multiple “access points” in our fragmented,decentralized government for IGs to exploit: -separation of powers gives IGs multiple branches of government to influence and federalism gives IGs multiple levels of government to influence, this all gives IGs more opportunities for success. Political parties are also relatively weak, in the sense that they are experiencing declining loyalty and ability to inspire voter turnout, so citizens turn to interest groups as better advocates for what they want. d. Describe the various methods by which interest groups attempt to achieve their goals, including lobbying, political action committees (PACs), electioneering, grassroots/mass mobilization, issue advocacy, 527s,litigation, amicus curiae/judicial lobbying Lobbying-face-to-face persuasion by hired lobbyists to convince lawmakers or executive branch officials to pass legislation/issue regulations favorable to an interest group by providing the information he/she needs. PACs/campaign contributions-an organization that raises money to donate to candidates. Electioneering-interest groups participate in elections through a variety of methods:advertising for candidates,providing volunteers to campaign for candidates, and get out the vote efforts(GOTV)  Grassroots mobilization/lobbying-encouraging people in large numbers to write letters,sign petitions,rally,etc.In order to put pressure on the government and influence it to take action favorable to the IG. Issue advocacy-attempting to persuade public opinion through the mass media,usually by running ads on TV or in newspapers. 527’s-a “527” is a group that,under US tax law, is able to spend unlimited money advocating about any issue,including candidates in an election, as long as they don’t specifically say “Vote for..” or “Don’t vote for…” someone. Litigation-bringing lawsuits in court to obtain rulings or interpretations of laws or the constitution that favor an IG’s interests. Amicus curiae briefs/judicial lobbying-submitting “friend of the court”(amicus curiae) briefs (legal arguments) to a court in support of one side of a legal dispute. e.Describe the "free rider" problem Many people benefit from an IG’s activities without joining or donating to an IG For example, an old person may benefit from what the AARP (American Association of Retired Persons) does but may not join and pay dues (its called “free riding” because it is similar to riding a bus to get where you are going but failing to pay the fare) It is a huge problem for IGs so many IGs try to offer tangible (actual) benefits to get people to join and contribute. f.Explain some of the important differences between interest groups in terms of types and methods Interest groups vary in terms of their types and methods. The main types include: 1. Economic interest groups- (e.g., business associations, labor unions) that focus on issues benefiting specific industries or workers. 2. Public interest groups-that advocate for broad social causes like environmental protection, civil rights, or public health. 3. Governmental interest groups-which represent the interests of state or local governments. 4. Ideological or single-issue groups-that focus on one specific issue or ideology, such as gun rights or abortion. Methods differ across groups: Lobbying: Most interest groups hire lobbyists to directly influence lawmakers and government officials. Grassroots mobilization: Some groups organize members to petition, protest, or contact lawmakers to build public support for an issue. Litigation: Groups may file lawsuits or amicus briefs to influence court decisions. Public advocacy: Many groups run media campaigns to raise awareness and sway public opinion. a Identify various forms of political participation The most common form of political participation is voting. Other forms are: Contact elected officials Work on political campaigns Donate money to candidates Join a social movement Participate in protests Attend political meetings Reach out to other citizens to educate them about the issue Contact the media Registration drive/GOTV efforts Run for office Start/sign a petition Participate in litigation Join a party or interest group Civil disobedience (unconventional) Violence (unconventional) b. Describe the provisions of the 15th, 19, 24h, and 26 Amendments 15th-right to vote for adult Black males 19th-right to vote for women 24th-abolished poll taxes 26th-lowered the voting age to 18 in all federal,state, and local elections c.Describe the provisions of the Voting Rights Act (1965), the ADA, the Motor Voter Bill (1993), and HAVA (2002) The Voting Rights Act of 1965 banned the use of literacy tests nationwide,enlarged voting rights for linguistic minorities (ballots and information must be provided in minority languages),banned any discriminatory voting practice,special enforcement provisions targeting areas of the country with a history of voting discrimination,and required federal “preclearance” of any change in voting requirements in such areas.The Americans With Disabilities Act (1990) requires that voting facilities be accessible to the handicapped, that voting devices be adaptable for the handicapped and that voting materials and ballots be adapted for visually impaired.The National Voter Registration Act of 1993 required state and local governments to make voter registration forms available in public buildings,so that people could get the form more conveniently.The law is often called the “Motor Voter” law because it included the motor vehicle agencies in every state, on the theory that more people would register to vote while standing in line for their driver’s license and such. Help America Vote Act of 2002 or HAVA was passed in the aftermath of the 2000 election in which many problems with out voting system were discovered.Voting  machines had to meet certain standards for usability and accuracy,voters whose names do not appear on voter registration lists must be given a “provisional ballot” and allowed to vote while the issue is looked into, and additional protects for handicapped voters,non-english speakers,and military/overseas voters. d. Define rational-choice, prospective, retrospective, straight ticket party-line and split-ticket voting Rational-choice voting-some voters decide how to vote by calmly and logically choosing the party or candidate that best represents their views and preferences. Prospective voting-people vote for the candidate they believe will do the most to help them/the country in the future. Straight-ticket voting (aka,party line voting)-people vote for all candidates of a certain party on a single ballot. Split-ticket voting-people vote for candidates of either party on a single ballot. e.Define political efficacy A citizen’s capacity to understand and influence political events. f.Define voter turnout; describe US voter turnout compared to other major democracies and explain reasons why,including structural/legal barriers to voting at the state level Voter turnout is the percentage of people who vote out of all eligible voters.Voter turnout in the US is the highest in presidential elections,lower in midterm elections and is even lower in off-year elections and even lower in primary elections. Generally, voter turnout in the US is low because of lots of reasons;some structural/legal barriers are….. -In most states,registering to vote is a task that individuals must perform themselves,so people have to be proactive if they want to vote;in some states,proof of residency and identification are required,making it more difficult, and deadlines are often many weeks before elections,so some people miss the deadline and can’t vote.-MOst states do not allow inmates to vote;in many states,having a felony conviction on your record results in temporary or permanent disenfranchisement.-Some states require a state-issued photo ID to vote, but many voters do not have the most common form of ID and may not be able to afford or obtain an acceptable state-issued ID.-Some states take further measures to disenfranchise voters,like Georgia’s “exact match” law, and purging voter registration lists of voters who don’t vote in an election.-Election day is normally a Tuesday, which is a workday,making it a hassle for many people to get away from work to vote.-Some states allow fewer excuses for voting absentee,making it harder to do so.-During the pandemic,in the 2020 election,some states made it convenient for people to turn in their ballot with lots of drop boxes,and some did not,making it harder for some to vote.-Some states count votes that arrive by mail after election day,some do not.-Some states allow early voting,but many do not make it harder for some to vote. g.Explain the likelihood of a person voting in terms of election type and demographic characteristics Higher education and income results in a much higher likelihood of voting. Whites are somewhat more likely to vote than Blacks,and Hispanics are much less likely to vote than either. Women are somewhat more likely to vote than men across all ethnic groups. Voter turnout varies by election type: -people are most likely to vote in a presidential election and -people are less likely to vote in midterm elections,presidential primaries, and midterm primaries. h. In addition to ideology and party identification, explain the demographic factors that affect voter choice Gender(gender gap)-a majority of women vote for the Democratic Party, a majority of men vote for the Republican party. Religion- jews strongly prefer Democratic candidates,Protestants tend to favor Republican candidates,especially Evangelical/Born-Again Christians,who overwhelmingly favor Republicans,Catholics tend to be roughly evenly split these days;historically,Catholics have favored the Democratic Party,but the abortion issue causes some to support the Republican Party. Locality-Urban voters tend to favor Democrats and Rural voters tend to favor Republicans. Income-Lower income groups tend to favor Democrats and as income rises people tend to favor Republicans. Age-Younger voters tend to favor the Democratic Party,as they are more liberal,especially when it comes to social issues like equality and gay marriage.Generally,people grow more conservative with age (life cycle effect),so Americans over age 50 tend to support the Republican Party more than the Democratic Party. Race/ethnicity- The Republican Party enjoys the support of a majority of White Americans,African-Americans overwhelmingly support the Democratic Party,Asian-Americans overall tend to support the Democratic Party,but there are differences depending on exact heritage; Japanese- and Vietnamese-Americans tend to be more conservative,Chinese-and Korean-Americans tend to be more liberal. Hispanics are complicated;over,Hispanics mostly support the Democratic Party,but..; Cuban-Americans are quite conservative and strongly support the Republican Party but..Hispanics of other heritage tend to support the Democratic Party but.. Most are catholic,so the abortion issue again drives some to support the Republican Party. Education-The least and most educated favor the Democratic Party fairly strongly, those with other levels of education are about evenly split,with a slight advantage to Democrats because more education tends to create somewhat more liberal attitudes. Region-The Northeast and Upper Midwest is heavily Democratic,the south is heavily Republican,Much of the Midwest and West is pretty Republican except for.. The West Coast states (California,Oregon, and Washington), which are very liberal and thus strongly support the Democratic Party. i.Describe the concept of voter/party coalitions A coalition is a combination of alliance of groups, a group of countries cooperating with each other militarily might be called a coalition,a group of political parties or interest groups working  together might be called a coalition,different groups of voters supporting the same party might be called a coalition,both parties rely on certain groups in their respective coalitions to support them in elections.Among the demographic groups that are reliable Democratic voters,i.e,members of the “Democratic coalition,” are: racial/ethnic minorities,especially African-Americans,women,jews,younger voters,LGBTQ community,northeatern,rustbelt,and west coast voters, and urban voters.( keep in mind that party coalitions can change over time) a. Define campaign finance and describe the various issues surrounding campaign finance law The acquisition,usually through donations of various types,of the funds a candidate needs in order to campaign for office.Though,the vast amount of money needed to run a modern campaign and the frequency of elections mean that our politicians must devote much of their time and energy to fundraising (instead of their job,serving the people).If your doing public financing it would require taxpayer mommy and if your doing it privately,how would you regulate private donations to prevent corruption (politicians owing favors to donors)?To what degree is campaigning spending “speech” protected by the First Amendment? Is all money equally protected by speech? Is any of this good for democracy?;Bribery has always been illegal,but is the fact that our politicians benefit from so much money from corporations and the wealthy really much different? Is it causing people to lose confidence in our government? b.Describe the provisions of the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) of 1971 (and as subsequently amended) and describe the Supreme Court's decision in Buckley v Valeo (1976) FECA 1971- required candidates to disclose publicly all campaign contributions and expenditures,created the legal framework for PACs that would allow people,corporations,and labor unions to indirectly donate to campaigns. FECA 1974-Created the Federal Election Commission to enforce campaign finance laws,set a strict limit of $1000 per individual on contributions to candidates, and set limits on spending by candidates. Buckley v Valeo- the supreme court decided that any limit on total campaign spending by candidates was an unconstitutional limit on their freedom of speech, and that the $1000 limit on individual contributions to candidates was a permissible limitation on freedom of speech in order to preserve the integrity of our elections. c.Define soft money Money donated to political parties who then spent the money on behalf of their candidates (to get around the $1000 limit on individual contributions to candidates) d. Describe the most important provisions of the 2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA, aka, "McCain- Feingold") Most important:  Soft money was banned (people,corporations, and labor unions could no longer get around the hard money ban by contributing to political parties) “Issue ads” could not be aired within a certain amount of time before primary and general elections e. Define political action committee (PAC) A political action committee is a legal entity,often associated with an interest group,that can be created under guidelines defined by the FECA of 1971 for the purpose of collecting monetary donations and distributing them to candidates PACs are an alternate source of campaign funding for candidates (in addition to contributions from individuals) f. Describe some of the different types of PACs and the differences between them Traditional PACs-A person can contribute up to $5000 to a PAC per year, and PACs can contribute up to $5000 per candidate per election and must disclose the source and recipient of all donations 527s-Organizations that can run political ads with unlimited personal or corporate donations but must report all donations and expenditures to the IRS and they CANNOT specifically advocate the election or defeat of a candidate Super PACs-similar to 527s in that they cannot contribute money directly to candidates but instead can spend unlimited money from any type of donor on electioneering. But unlike 527s,Super PACs can expressly advocate the defeat or election of candidates as long as they do not work “in coordination with” any candidate’s campaign. g.Describe the Supreme Court's decision in Citizens United v. FEC (2010) and its subsequent effects Citizens United was a 2010 Supreme Court decision that led to the flood of billions of dollars into the political system The Citizens United decision overturned legal restrictions on corporate spending on political issues that had existed for about 100 years.Corporations were to be treated as individuals, and therefore had free speech rights and could be elected just like any individual could. This led to the formation of Super PACs As a result of this flood of money from the wealthy (who can easily create legal corporations to escape individual donation limits) and actual corporations into our political system, those who are concerned about the influence of money on politicians and our democracy have little hope of reforming the system due to the fact the supreme court has declared that corporations are people, and that money is speech protected by the First Amendment,two decisions that will be very difficult to overturn. a.Describe the importance of the 1" Amendment to the media in the US  Freedom of speech and of the press are guaranteed by the First Amendment and have been interpreted over the years by our courts in a way that protects the media from most government censorship,making media in the US among the freest in the world. Media in the US is privately owned, and over the years the SC has interpreted the First AMendment to mean that the press must be as free from government censorship as possible.Therefore the government cannot exercise “prior restraint” by prohibiting something from being published before it is published. b.Describe the 3 major roles or functions played by the press in the US-watchdog, gatekeeper (agenda setting) and scorekeeper (horse race journalism) Gatekeeper-AKA agenda setting (deciding what stories to cover/which issues to highlight and bring to the public’s attention) Watchdog-AKA,investigative journalism (reporters revealing instances of wrongdoing) Scorekeeper-Aka horse race journalism-During election years,the media acts as a scorekeeper by constantly informing the people as to who is “winning” and who is “losing’ all through the primary season and the general election campaign,mostly referring to public opinion polls. c. Describe some of the common traditional criticisms of how the US media covers politics Bias-Since reporters and editors are human,there is inevitably bias present in what and how the media reports,so our media is often criticized for this. Oversimplification-Our media tends to present information in simplified form,through “sound bites,” quick headlines,etc. Emphasis on the trivial-It is also assumed that we are more interested in useless,human interest-style details,so that is what the media often reports. Emphasis on entertainment and sensationalism-The media is privately-owned, market-driven and profit-oriented.This is good because it is “independent” from the government and this can criticize the government.However,it also means that the media wants to make money.So the media will often emphasize conflicts,controversies, and sensational stories,instead of straightforward reporting of facts and details,resulting in a poorly informed public. d. Describe some more recent criticisms that have arisen since the advent of new media technologies Increased bias-Since the rise of cable Tv and the Internet,our media has more and more fragmented.Whereas once the American people could only choose among the 3 major TV networks,now there hundred of sources of news,many of them quite partisan and ideologically-oriented,which all narrow slices of the public want to hear what they want to hear (narrowcasting) Created credibility/Increased need for fact-checking-Because so many of us are content without preferred sources of news that tell us what we already think, we are vulnerable to believing whatever we are told.Many media outlets no longer feel bound by what used to be known as the “truth”.  Anonymity-The ability to disseminate information and opinion while remaining anonymous emboldens some who wish to disrupt the normal process of reaching social consensus.The conspiracy theories of the “Alt-Right” get a lot of press coverage, and many anonymous,outrageous claims and negative/offensive posts go viral easily,so it seems that extreme viewpoints garner followers and gain traction more easily than boring old facts. Vulnerability to outside manipulation-Anonymity not only emboldens domestic extremists but enables the menzacing designs of foreign agents as well. Equitable access to broadband-As more and more information is available via the internet, equitable access to broadband is increasingly an issue which affects the education,job prospects and quality of life of millions of people. 10.Explain Madison's main arguments in Federalist #10 The primary topic of Federalist #10 is Faction.A Faction is a group within a group who have interests that differ in some way from those of other groups or the group as a whole.Madison devoted this essay to the topic of faction because disagreement and conflict between factions are a threat to all governments-specially democracies-they typically attempt to gain control over the government and impose their policies on others.Madison wanted to explain that the constitution created a king of government that he believed might stop this from happening.