Unit 3 Organized Notes PDF

Chapter 15 Summaries 15.1 - What made the seventeenth century an “age of crisis” and achievement? The 17th century was referred to as the “age of crisis” since Europe dealt with population losses, economic decline, and social unrest. A period of cold and wet climate, dubbed the “Little Ice Age” too...

Chapter 15 Summaries 15.1 - What made the seventeenth century an “age of crisis” and achievement? The 17th century was referred to as the “age of crisis” since Europe dealt with population losses, economic decline, and social unrest. A period of cold and wet climate, dubbed the “Little Ice Age” took a hit on Europe’s agriculture, leading to poor harvests, food scarcity and famine, which in turn caused population decline. This economic crisis affected various industries: food prices soared, wages stagnated, and unemployment soared. This economic crisis also led to Peasants (who were most affected) to rebel across Europe, causing social unrest. Finally, the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) caused significant population declines and heavier taxation, compounding the suffering of the already traumatized population. However, it was also an age of achievement. In response to the warfare, economic crisis, and demographic decline, rulers took measures to restore order and rebuild their states. In politics, new forms of government like Absolutism and Constitutionalism were implemented. Rulers increased state authority by increasing taxation, creating larger and more efficient bureaucracies, expanding in territory, and creating permanent armies and growing their army size. In addition, cultural developments like the rise of Baroque Art flourished. 15.2 - Why did France rise and Spain fall during the late 17th century? France rose and Spain fell during the late 17th century due to France’s strong monarchical leadership, economic policies, and military success, which contrasted with Spain’s economic decline. In France, Cardinal Richelieu, the minister for King Louis XIII designed policies to strengthen the king’s power, namely through (1) the use of intendants appointed by monarchs to enforce the king’s rule in all districts of France, (2) suppressing Protestant religion through laying siege to the Protestant stronghold in La Rochelle, and (3) weakening the Hapsburgs in the Thirty Years War to boost France’s position. Cardinal Jules Mazarin continued these efforts. Under Louis XIV, France became fully absolutist. He centralized power by controlling the nobility through the Palace of Versailles, where nobles competed for favored treatment, honorary titles, pensions, and the privilege of participating in the king’s rituals making them dependent on the king for social status and wealth and forcing them to stay loyal to him. In terms of economics, Louis XIV’s general, John Baptiste Colbert implemented mercantilist doctrines by increasing the number of exports, encouraging the purchase of French goods and dissuading the purchase of foreign goods, and establishing colonies in Quebec to make use of their rich resources to make goods for export. This significantly boosted France’s wealth. In contrast, Spain was unable to sustain its empire. Spain’s reliance on silver from the Potosí mines led to economic collapse when the silver production dwindled and silver miners started dying off due to the pandemic. Costly wars further drained Spain’s wealth and resources and caused steep inflation. Aristocrats who attempted to maintain their extravagant lifestyles, but didn’t have enough money to, were forced to increase rent on their estates, which caused peasants to flee, which decreased agricultural productivity, which caused wages and production to stagnate, worsening the economic situation. Finally, internal revolts and war further weakened Spain’s monarchy. 15.3 - What explains the rise of absolutism in Prussia and Austria? In Prussia, the rulers of the Hohonzollern family, especially Frederick William and Frederick William I built a strong centralized military state. Frederick William weakened the power of the nobility by convincing the Junkers (nobility) to accept royal control of taxation in return for privileges and authority over serfs. Frederick William I cooperated with the nobility by giving them leadership positions in the military and allowing them to have control over the serfs. He established the beginnings of a militaristic country, raising the Prussian army to be the best in the world in precision, skill, and discipline, which positioned it as one of the strongest absolutist states. In Austria, the Habsburgs suppressed the nobility, re-established Catholic dominance in Bohemia, and formed a permanent army capable of defending against the Ottoman Empire. 15.4 - What were the distinctive features of Russian and Ottoman absolutism? In Russian absolutism, power was centralized around the Tsar, who held absolute power. Russian tsars centralized power by reducing the power of the nobility (boyars) and created a new service nobility, a class of nobles whose status and land was reliant on their loyalty to the tsar. Peter the Great established the first navy, brought foreigners from the West to help him build the navy and Russian infrastructure, and created schools of math and navigation to produce a more skilled workforce. With these military reforms, Russia was able to become one of the dominant European powers. He imposed cultural changes by forcing people to adopt Western European clothing and abandon traditional Russian clothing. In the Ottoman Empire, power was also highly centralized, with the Sultan having absolute power and owning all agricultural land in the empire. The empire was organized by the millet system. Subjects were divided into religious communities. Each millet (nation) was governed independently by a religious leader. These religious leaders got the power to govern their states autonomously, in return for loyalty to the Sultan. Ottomans ultimately failed to adopt military techniques like the Russians and declined in power. 15.5 - Why and how did the constitutional state triumph in the Dutch Republic and England? In England, tensions between Parliament’s support of purifying the Church of England of any remnants of Catholicism and King’s support of maintaining church hierarchy led to the English Civil War, which resulted in the establishment of a Republic by Oliver Cromwell and later a Protectorate (military dictatorship also led by Oliver Cromwell. The monarchy was restored in 1660. Charles II and James II ruled. People in Parliament opposed James II’s attempts to assert Catholicism by giving Catholics positions in armies, universities, and governments, and so they invited William of Orange and Mary (Protestants) to take the throne. This transfer of power to William and Mary is called the “Glorious Revolution,” since it marked the end of divine-right monarchy and the start of a constitutional monarchy, where they maintained the monarch as the titular head of government but vested sovereignty in an elected Parliament. William and Mary accepted the English Bill of Rights, a document that limited the power of the monarchy, protected individual rights, ensured Parliament had regular meeting sessions, and affirmed Parliament’s control over laws, ultimately giving rise to constitutionalism. In the Dutch Republic, they rejected monarchy and established a republican form of government, where power rests in the hands of elected representatives. There was no monarchy and power was decentralized, since each province had an assembly that was managed by a regent (wealthy businessman). These local estates held al the power; all issues needed to be referred back to local estates for approval and legislation. Because of their political success, the Dutch Republic experienced great commercial prosperity which they gained through shipbuilding, global trade, and commerce. Absolutism - Absolutism = the process by which political power was transferred away from the nobility and church and toward the monarch. Monarch held most of the power in Absolutist states. - Causes of Absolutism - Weakened influence of the Catholic Church: Due to a growing acceptance of Protestant practice and a lack of interest in religious warfare after the Peace of Westphalia - Economics: Merchant classes were expanding rapidly during this period of global trade and desired absolute monarchs for the economic and political stability they could provide - One of the main ways monarchs created absolutist states was by weakening the nobility. Previously, the nobility held a lot of power and did a lot of administration work. Monarchs took power away from them by creating bureaucracies that would do the administration work. The difference is that bureaucracies report directly to the king, whereas nobility isn’t. Constitutionalism Constitutionalism is the principle that government authority is derived from and limited by a body of fundamental laws or a constitution. It emphasizes the idea that all political power should be exercised within the constraints of a legal framework that guarantees individual rights, limits the powers of the rulers, and upholds the rule of law. In practice, constitutionalism means that: 1. Governments are bound by a constitution – either written or unwritten – which lays out the structure of government, defines the powers of different branches, and protects citizens' rights. 2. Rule of law prevails – meaning that laws apply equally to everyone, including those in power, and government actions are constrained by established laws. 3. Separation of powers – constitutionalism often involves dividing government powers into separate branches (legislative, executive, and judicial) to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful. 4. Accountability and protection of rights – citizens have legal recourse if their rights are violated, and governments are held accountable to both the constitution and the people. It played a significant role in the establishment of constitutional monarchies and republics, ensuring that government power is not absolute France (Louis XIV: 1643-1715, Absolutist Monarchy) - Louis XIV = “THE” Absolutist - L’etat c’est moi (I AM THE STATE). Not the military, not the nobility, not the people, I AM THE STATE. ALL POWER BELONGS TO ME! - How Louis consolidated power - Intendant System: Louis sent bureaucratic agents called intendants to the various districts of France who acted as agents of Louis. Whatever policies Louis passed, his intendants would make sure they were obeyed throughout France. This intendant system in which representatives were appointed by the monarch enforced monarchical rule in all districts of France. - Palace of Versailles - Louis XIV required all high-ranking nobles to spend part of the year at Versailles, so that he could keep an eye on them and prevent them from strengthening their power bases. - He created an elaborate set of etiquette rituals from the beginning to the end of his day (waking up, dressing in the morning, removing clothing, retiring at night). The highest noble in rank had the privilege of handing the king his shirt. - In this system, nobles competed for the king’s favored treatment, honorary titles, pensions, and the privilege of participating in these rituals. - The effect? It made the nobles dependent on the king for social status and wealth. Louis was in turn able to secure the loyalty and cooperation of these nobles. - Religious Uniformity: Louis believed that religious unity was essential to the stability and security of the state. He revoked the Edict of Nantes, which had granted partial religious freedom to the minority Protestant Huguenots. - Wars of Expansion - See below - Jean Baptiste Colbert’s mercantilist principles helped to finance these wars: E > I (favorable balance of trade), new industries, lower domestic tariffs to encourage purchase of French goods and increase foreign tariffs to dissuade purchase of foreign goods, establish colonies in Quebec to use their rich resources for goods More on Louis XIV’s Wars of Expansion, Balance of Power in Europe - Louis XIV, French monarch, pursued CONSTANT warfare during his reign. (1643-1715) - Reasons for Louis XIV’s wars - Expand territory  - Weaken Hapsburg influence across Europe - Hapsburg’s dominated a ton of Europe. Extreme imbalance in the balance of power. French intervention in 30 years war? - Increase his own glory - Louis’s relentless expansionism disrupted the balance of power. - Grand Alliance: Several states including Hapsburgs in the HRE, the Dutch Republic, England, Spain, Sweden, Portugal form the Grand Alliance to counter the imbalance of power shifting in Louis’s favor - War of Spanish Succession (War over Spanish dynastic succession) Charles II of spain dies w/o hair. He places Philip V on the throne. PLOT TWIST! Philip V is actually Louis’s grandson. England, Dutch, Austria, Prussia fear a union between France and Spain, thinking they might merge into a single throne, which would totally overthrow the balance of power. War immediately broke out against this scenario - 1713 Treaty of Utrecht (End of War of Spanish Succession) Treaty decided that Philip V would remain on the Spanish throne, but that France and Spain must remain separate entities (cannot merge). Russia (Peter the Great: 1682-1725, Absolutist Monarchy) Peter’s Reforms: - Military-Civilian Bureaucracy: Required nobles to serve in the army or civil administration. This made them answerable directly to Peter himself, giving him absolute power - Westernizing: Peter requires nobility to shave their beards and wear western-style clothing (For Russian Orthodox Church, beard is a symbol of piety, so requiring the shaving of beards is challenging the church) - Religious: Peter reorganized the Russian Orthodox Church by eliminating the role of the Patriarch and replacing it with the Holy Synod which Peter populated with officials and ministers, putting himself in control of the Church. Prussia (Frederick William: 1640-1688, Frederick William I: 1713-1740, Absolutist Monarchy) - Prussia is a precursor to modern German States - Frederick William (r. 1640-1688) - Names: The “Great Elector”, Father of Prussian Absolutism - Frederick William I (r. 1713-1740) - Names: The “Soldier King” - “A formidable army and a war chest large enough to make this army mobile in times of need can create great respect for you in the world, so that you can speak a word like the other powers.” - Basically, the key to becoming a great power in Europe is to have a great military - Militarism differentiates Prussia from other absolutist states. They have the 4th largest army. Other European nations model their armies after the Prussian-style army. - Prussia is known as the “Sparta of the North”. It was a state where people LIVED the army, it was part of life. - Frederick William I aims to raise a militaristic country, rooted in discipline, not just in the military, but in the nation at large. He bans comedies, operas, and ballets because they were considered soft. - He also believed that the king should live a life of extreme discipline and despise luxury. He said “all successful rulers keep God before their eyes and have no mistresses or, rather, whores, and lead a godly life…”. The goal of a king is to lead a very simple life, led by God, unlike Louis XIV and his luxurious life in the Palace of Versailles. - How the Fredericks built an absolutist state: - All absolutist rulers had to contend with institutions that limited their power such as the church, the nobility, representative bodies, and education. Each absolutist ruler dealt with these a little bit differently. This is how the Fredericks built an absolutist state: - Summary: Through allowing religious toleration, enlisting the cooperation of the nobility, limiting the power of the representative bodies and being able to tax by decree, and by establishing a system of compulsory public education, the Fredericks established one of the most successful Absolutists states in early modern Europe. - Church: Fredericks are Calvinists, and they are governing a predominantly Lutheran country. They allow Protestant Toleration (allow ppl to be Lutherna or Calvinists). This weakens the state church, since people are no longer unified under the church.  - Nobility (Junkers): While Louis XIV weakened noble power in the Palace of Versailles, Fredericks cooperated w/ the nobility by bringing them in as partners, which he called Junkers. The nobility work as service nobility to command the military and serve in positions of civil service. In return, kings of Prussia-Brandenburg grant them free reign with the peasants under them. - Representative Bodies (Estates): Prussian representative bodies are composed of representatives from nobility, clergy, townspeople. They advise the monarch on issues like taxation and local laws. Frederick William weakened their power by pushing to control taxation without the approval of the estates, weakening estates’ influence over fiscal matters, which had been one of their primary sources of power. - Education: Prussia implemented the first system of compulsory education, which required everyone in the kingdom to go to a state school. They received a basic education, learned how to become a good citizen / servant of the state, and knowledge that reinforced loyalty to the state and monarch. Nobles (Junkers) are forced to go to the Prussian Military Academy to learn how to assist the Prussian King in commanding armies. - Frederick II (r. 1740-1786) - Names: Enlightened Absolutist, Friend of Voltaire England (Constitutional Monarchy) Rulers: - Tudor Dynasty - James I (Absolutist, Divine Right of Kings) - Charles I (Absolutist, Divine Right of Kings) - Oliver Cromwell (Leader in English Civil War, establish Protectorate - Military Dictatorship) - Charles II (Return to Monarchy) - James II (Return to Monarchy) - William of Orange and Mary (Glorious Revolution, Constitutional Monarchy, establish Bill of Rights) - Unlike France, Prussia, Austria, and Russia which moved towards Absolutism, England was a firmly constitutional government, which means the power of their government was limited by the rule of law. - This law stated that no English monarch could rule absolutely because that monarch was required to share power with the English Parliament, which was a legislative body that represented the interests of the English people. - Causes of the English Civil War - (1) The Divine Right of Kings - Divine right of kings, in European history, a political doctrine in defense of monarchical absolutism, which asserted that kings derived their authority from God and could not therefore be held accountable for their actions by any earthly authority such as a parliament - Just as God has granted spiritual authority to the church, he simultaneously granted political authority to the king. If God granted the authority, then challenging the king is equivalent to challenging God, which poses an issue… - Charles I who succeeded James I believed in the divine right of kings. He believed that he could seize any land he wanted because God had given him the power to do so. However, this posed a problem for Parliament, especially those in the lower house (The House of Commons), who reminded the King that land could only be seized by the due process of law. Charles continued doing such things, which caused great conflict between him and Parliament. - (2) Economics: Thirty Years’ War  - Debt was accrued from England’s participation in the Thirty Years’ War. Charles I had spent money that wasn’t authorized by parliament. This caused tension between the crown and the people’s representatives. - (3) The Anglican Church - When Henry VIII established the Anglican Church, he did it because the Pope had refused to grant him a divorce, not because he wanted to religiously reform the church. So, the Anglican Church was still pretty Catholic. Puritans in the Church of England sought to “purify” the Anglican Church by removing Catholic influences. Charles I married a Catholic princess and imposed Catholic policies, which created tensions between the him and the Parliament, which was heavily influenced by Puritan members. - The war was fought to decide the question: will England be ruled by an absolute monarch or exist as a constitutional monarchy? - Charles I’s army: nobility - Parliament’s army: “New Model Army” - Oliver Cromwell - Member of the House of Commons and a devout Puritan - Took charge of the New Model Army and crushed the king’s forces (and also captured the king!) - Removed any anti-Cromwell members in Parliament. The remaining representatives were known as the “Rump Parliament” - Effect of the English Civil War: The Protectorate (constitutional monarchy, but not really…) - Oliver Cromwell names himself the Lord Protector - On paper, the Protectorate entrusted legislative authority to the members of Parliament, while executive authority was entrusted to a council. - The truth is, England was ruled by the army, with Cromwell at its head (ruling the army). England was not the constitutional republic that the English Civil War was fought for. Rather, it was a military dictatorship. - Cromwell tried to work w/ Parliament to govern England, but they didn’t do what he wanted and they had a lot of disputes, so he dismissed Parliament. - For nearly a decade, Cromwell ruled England by force, the very thing he tried to abolish… - After Cromwell died, the Protectorate fell apart and people wanted to return to stability (aka they wanted a king again) - The Restoration of the English Monarchy - Charles II - didn’t work well with Parliament  - James II - also didn’t work well with Parliament, since he kept appointing Catholics to important positions (army, universities, government), opposing both majority-Protestant England and majority-Puritan parliament. - 1689 Glorious Revolution - Parliament was FED UP with the stupid ass monarchy and appointed Mary (James II’s Protestant daughter) and her husband William of Orange (Dutch Protestant Prince) - This transfer of power is called the Glorious Revolution, since the monarchy was changed without bloodshed. - This marks the END of the idea of “divine-right monarchy”, the idea that monarchy power is unchecked by any political power like Parliament. - Constitutional Monarchy - Bill of Rights: limited the power of the monarchy and protected the power of Parliament - Only Parliament has the power to raise taxes - When Parliament passes a law, it cannot be annulled by the king - Parliament has to be called at least once every three years (so that the king can’t just DISMISS Parliament like ahhem…Cromwell did…) Dutch (Fully Constitutional Government) - Netherland area used to belong to Spanish Hapsburgs. After end of the 30 Years War, during the Peace of Westphalia, Dutch won their independence from the Spanish. - *How to remember constitutional gov: obviously after being ruled by the Spanish Hapsburg monarchs, the Dutch would be tired af of monarchy, so they rejected it! - Rejected monarchy in favor of a constitutional government. but, this is dif. from English! - England: favored a constitutional monarchy in which the monarchy is limited by the rule of law by the power of the two houses of Parliament - Netherlands: made no provision for a monarchy and instead opted for a republican government in which the power was in the hands of the people and the government did its work by means of the people’s representatives - Two types of governments in Netherlands: provincial government, federal government - Provincial government - Each province has its own estate (legislative body). Provincial estates hold most of the power. - Each estate is ruled by an oligarchy (few ppl rule vs. 1 person). Oligarchy is made up of wealthy businessmen and rural landholders. They handled all the province’s domestic policies. - Each estate appointed a stadholder, who carried out ceremonial duties and was responsible for military defense - Federal Government - Has a LOT LESS power than provincial estates - Mostly handles foreign policy and war - Since they had so little power, every major issue had to be referred back to ✨ ✨ local estates for approval and legislation. These estates had VETO power. - Dutch Golden Age - Because of their political success, the Dutch Republic experienced great commercial prosperity which they gained through shipbuilding, global trade, and commerce. - Invested heavily in shipbuilding, leading them to become leaders in maritime trade - Had a favorable geographic position on the Atlantic ocean, making it a prime location for trading and shipping - The Dutch dominated global trade. They controlled a large share of the shipping and trading routes and were influential in setting trade prices and controlling supply chains. - Became extremely wealthy & had highest standard of living in the WORLD