Grade 10 History Short Notes PDF

OROMIA REGIONAL STATE WEST ARSI ZONE DODOLA IFA BORU SPECIAL BOARDING SECONDARY SCHOOL HISTORY GRADE 10 HAND OUT AUTHOR: GUYE A. {MA} NOVEMBER 2023 DODOLA, OROMIA 1|P ag e ...

OROMIA REGIONAL STATE WEST ARSI ZONE DODOLA IFA BORU SPECIAL BOARDING SECONDARY SCHOOL HISTORY GRADE 10 HAND OUT AUTHOR: GUYE A. {MA} NOVEMBER 2023 DODOLA, OROMIA 1|P ag e  Unit-THREE (3) SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN ETHIOPIA FROM 1850’S-1941; 3.1 Long Distance Trade {LDT} in 19th Century;  The peoples and polities in south, north and eastern Ethiopia and the Horn were connected by two major trade routes that started from Bonga, (Kafa capital), in 19th century. st 1 : main market centres along these lines were Bonga (Kafa)-Jiren/Hirmata (Jimma) -Saqa (Limu- Enaria) -Asandabo (H/Guduru Wolega) - Basso (Gojjam) - Darita (Begemidir) - and Gondar.  At Gondar it branched into two: first went westward through Chilga to Matamma (Gallabat)-Sudan,  The other route passed through Adwa - Asmara and terminated at Massawa on the Red Sea coast to Europeans. 2nd; also started from Bonga and passed through Hirmata -Soddo (south Shewa) - Rogge (at Yarar Mnt), Aliyu Amba or Abdul Rasul (north Shewa) - and Harar in eastern Ethiopia.  At Harar it branched into two the first route went to Zeyila and the second to Berbera, both on the Somalia Coast of the Indian Ocean to Arabia;  The principal commodities that dominated in LDT were ivory, civet musk, salt bars (amole) and slaves.  Salt bars (amole) served as a medium of exchange and were used side by side with Maria Theresa Thalers (MTT).  MTT was a coin introduced from Austria to the Horn of African by Arab traders at the end of 18 thc.  in LDT local peoples were active traders. However, Muslim merchants were the most dominant group that travelled from the interior to the coast.  Eg; Northern Muslim merchants known as Jeberti and  Southwestern Muslim Oromo merchants known as Afkala.  Somali Muslim Merchant called Safari,  Sudanese Muslim Merchants called Jelaba.  Moreover, Argoba from Shewa Kingdom were also active merchants in the trade between Harar and northern Somali coast.  2|P ag e   The Cottage Industries and its Roles;  A cottage industry is a small-scale, decentralized manufacturing business often operated out of a home rather than a purpose-built facility.  They often focus on the production of labour-intensive goods but face a significant disadvantage when competing with factory-based manufacturers that mass-produce goods.  The origins of a cottage industry in Ethiopia date back to ancient times.  The most common cottage industries and handicraft technology were;  Metal working, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving, jewelry and basket making.  The general public’s attitude towards artisans was not at all encouraging as they were mostly disdained and marginalized.  Although artisans and craftsmen were not respected in Ethiopia, they played irreplaceable roles in the socio-economy of the country.  Consequently, the locally produced agricultural implements and household furniture did not show any significant improvement and sophistication.  Among the cottage industries, blacksmiths were responsible for the manufacture of a wide variety of articles of considerable economic and military importance in many parts of the country.  These included ploughshares and iron parts of pick-axes, sickles, agricultural implements, knives and razors, spearheads, daggers, swords, bullets and spare parts for the rifles.  Moreover, bits and stirrups for horses and mules, pans on which to cook bread, hammers, pincers, drills, nails, hatchets, saws and files, steels for striking fire,, chains and rings were also manufactured by smiths. 3|P ag e  3.2 The Making of Modern Ethiopian State (1855-1913);  It involved the unification of regions and principalities found in northern and north-central parts and territorial expansion into southern half of the country. A) Kassa Hailu; of Quara was attempted to unify the country through different strategies.  He became a prominent when he was serving his half-brother, Dejj. Kenfu of Dambia and helped him in defeating Egyptians at Wad-Kaltabu in 1837.  Later, in 1848, Kassa also fought against Egyptians at Dabarqi, while he defeated because Egypt’s superior in military organization, discipline, and better armaments.  Meanwhile, he became popular w/c attracted attention of Yejju (Warra-Sheh) lords.  Therefore, they decided to have Kassa on their side through a marriage arrangement and thus they gave him Tewabech, the daughter of Ras Ali II.  He was also appointed as the governor of Quara. However, Kassa felt that he was not treated well by Ras Ali and his mother, Etege Menen. Hence he gradually fought against the Yejju nobles and other regional lords.  The major regional lords defeated by Kassa Hailu before his coronation were:  Dejjach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Amba on November 27, 1852;  Birru Aligaz and other four Dejjazmachs at Gorgora Bichen on April 12, 1853;  Ras Ali II of Yejju Dynasty at Ayshal on 29 June 1853; and  Dejj. Wube of Tigray & Semen at Deresge on 8 February 1855.  At Ayshal last ruler of Yejju dynasty defeated w/c symbolized an end of Zemene Mesafint.  Kassa Hailu was anointed by Abune Salaam at Deresge Mariam on 9 February 1855 and became Tewodros II, „King of Kings‟ of Ethiopia.  Generally, he was followed two main policies; Re-unification & Modernization; 1) Re-Unification of the Country;  He knew that his country would not remain independent unless some fundamental measures were taken.  So, he envisioned establishing a country that was;  Territorially United and  Militarily Self-dependent and Stronger.  The Wallo campaign, where he encountered fierce resistance, started in March 1855. The capture of Maqdala on 12 September 1855 marked the end of his campaign to Wallo for the time being.  His campaign to Shewa also lasted some five months. It was concluded after the Shewan force defeated at the Battle of Bereket in November 1855.  Tewodros left Shewa by appointing Haile-Mikael, (Haile-Melekot brother), the king of Shewa.  But, Seifu, another brother of Haile Melekot, continued to challenge Tewodros’s authority and other area like Gojjam and Semen, rebellion against Tewodros.  Hence, the conclusion of Shewan campaign marked the peak of Tewodros‟s power and also beginning his end reign. 2) Modernization of the country; by introducing drastic reforms in the areas of military, administration and socio-economy.  In military sphere, he introduced military titles like Yasr-Aleqa (commander of ten), Yamsa-Aleka (commander of hundred), and Yeshi Aleqa (commander of the thousand).  He tried to organize and replace the regional armies of the Zemene-Mesafint (‘Era of Princes’) with a ‘salaried national army‟.  He established an arms manufacture at Gafat (near Debre Tabor) with the help of European missionaries and artisans. As a result, about 35 cannons were produced at Gafat including his famous mortar known as “Sebastopol.”  He confiscated church land and reduced the number of priests and deacons in each church to five.  B/c; to get extra land to distribute among landless and increase productivity for the population, 4|P ag e   However, his reforms and modernization attempts faced serious challenges and opposition from both inside and outside the country. A. Internally, his administrative and social reforms were opposed by;  Regionalism forces who wanted to maintain their indigenous power in their respective provinces.  Church-State conflict; clergy saw his involvement in the affairs of church as dangerous to the church’s authority as an institution.  B. Externally, he conflicted with British b/c his lack of support from British in planned to modernize the country.  Then he recruited & detained the British diplomatic mission and missionaries.  For the revenge, British sent an army to Ethiopia to deal the matter of military after they failed to negotiate the release of diplomatic mission and missionaries with Tewodros.  At last, storming of Meqdela on April 30, 1868, by British lead for the suicide of Tewodros brought an end to his reign.  Activity 3.1:  Mention the reforms made by Tewodros II!  Mention the two provinces where Tewodros made campaigns immediately after his coronation!  Compare and contrast Tewodros‟s campaigns to Wallo and Shewa! B) Kassa Mircha; following Tewodros’s death, three contenders to throne emerged were; Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta, Kassa Mircha of Tigray, and Menilek of Shewa.  After Tewodros, Gobeze came to power immediately as Emperor Tekle-Giorgis II (1868−71).  Although attempts were made to create a smooth relationship between Gobeze and Kassa Mircha, the quest for state power put them in enmity and it was brought to an end after Assem battle (near Adwa) in July 1871. Then, Kassa crowned as Emperor Yohanes IV (1872-1889) of Ethiopian king.  He followed two main policies in achieving his objective; I) Peaceful Submission and II) Forceful Subjugation, I. In Politics; he attempted to introduce a decentralized system of administration permitting regional rulers to exercise a great deal of autonomy, (by peaceful).  Eg; he gave recognition for Menelik as Negus of Shewa in 1878 by Liche agreement.  He also designated Ras Adal Tesema of Gojjam as Nigus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa in 1881.  He succeeded in achieving the unity of Christian provinces, including Wag and Lasta, Simen, Begemidr, Amhara Saynt, Wallo, and the Mereb Melash by forces. II. Religious Policy; He also sought to end the religious controversy within the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahdo Church (EOTC),  The Council of Boru-Meda (1878), where Tewahdo was declared the only doctrine of the EOTC.  But, Ethiopian Muslims, especially those of Wallo, were forced to be converted to Orthodox Christianity.  Hence, some superficially converted while others preferred migration to other areas like Arsi, Gurage, Jimma and Sudan.  However, the Wallo leaders like Mohammed Ali and Amede Liban were converted to Christianity and changed their names to Ras Mikael and Dejjach Hayle-Mariam, respectively. C) Menelik; like Emperor Yohanes IV, Menelik also followed two main policies in the Formation of Modern Ethiopian Empire; I) Peaceful Submission and II) Forceful Subjugation,  The processes of his territorial expansion were categorized into three phases. 5|P ag e   First phase; made when he was king of Shewa (1865-89).  Second phase; conducted from his coronation as Ethiopian Emperor up to the battle of Adwa, (1889- 1896),  Third phase; was conducted after the battle of Adwa (1896-1900). I) First phase; The Shewan Oromo notables like Ras Gobana Dache played a pivotal role in the territorial expansion and the Creation of Modern Ethiopian Empire (CMEE). a) Peaceful Submission; by 1870’s, Menilek incorporated Tulama and eastern Mecha Oromo territories, (Shewa Oromo).  The northern Guraghe, the Kistane (Soddo Guraghe) peacefully submitted without resistance to Menilek. b) Forceful Subjugation; while the western Guraghe, led by Hassan Enjamo of Qabena, strongly resisted Menelik's force until Ras Gobana defeated them in 1888.  However, in some Oromo inhabited territories like in Arsi and Hararghe Menilek encountered stiff resistance.  For instance, it took him six different campaigns from 1882 to 1886 to pacify the Arsi Oromo.  Finally, the Arsi resistance was suppressed by the forces of Ras Darge Sahla Sellasie at the battle of Azule on 6 September 1886.  In Hararghe, the combined forces of Harari and the Oromo attempted to resist Menelik's expansion.  Yet, their forces were defeated at the battle of Chalanqo on 6 January 1887.  This followed by the appointment of Ras Mekonnen Welde-Mikael as governor of the province by Emperor Menilek II.  Menilek’s territorial expansion to western & southwestern Ethiopia was concluded through both forceful and peaceful submissions.  The area south of Abay River, particularly Horro Guduru was controlled by Ras Adal (Nigus Tekle- Haymanot) until he defeated at Embabo by Menilek‟s commander, Ras Gobana in 1888 (forceful).  After Embabo, Leqa-Naqamte, Leqa-Qellam, and Jimma Abba Jifar submitted to Menilek peacefully, who promised them to recognize and maintain their autonomies. II)Second phase; conducted from his coronation as emperor of Ethiopia from 1889 up to the battle of Adwa in 1896,  In 1889, Menilek became Ethiopian Emperor and he continued the process of expansion with renewed vigour.  A year before his coronation, the country was hit by the „Great Famine or Kefu Qan‟ (1888-92), which devastated the nation and seriously depleted the cattle population.  The immediate cause of the famine was the „Rinderpest‟ epidemic triggered by the Italian importation of infected cattle through Massawa.  The famine partly necessitated and gave further momentum to territorial expansion in southern Ethiopia.  As a result, from 1889 -1894, areas like Bale, Sidama, Dawuro, Konta, Kambata,, Gamo Gofa and Wolaita were incorporated.  The Wolaita incorporation was made possible after the suppression of a stiff popular resistance which resulted in the death of a large number of people in 1894.  The Wolaita resistance was put under control after Kawo Tona (the last king of Wolaita) was arrested. III) Third phase; was followed by the incorporation of Gedeo, Borana and Konso  In 1897 Kaffa was incorporated after Tato Gaki Sherocho forces (last king of Kafa) were defeated by Menelik's army led by Ras Wolde Giorgis.  Similarly, Emperor Menilek extended his authority over Benishangul and Gambella, setting the stage for a formal agreement in I902 on borders with British colonial power in Sudan.  The process of territorial expansion was concluded with the signing of boundary agreements with the neighboring colonial powers that continued until 1908. 6|P ag e   Like Tewodros II, Menilek II, was eager to introduce western technology and administrative reforms into Ethiopia.  Therefore, he founded the first modern „Bank of Abyssinia‟ in 1905;  The first Modern School, Menilek II in 1908;  Introduced the first modern postal system,  Initiated the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway work that established after signed an agreement with the French in 1894,  Introduced electricity, telephone, telegraph, the motor car, and modern plumbing to Addis Ababa.  He also started to mint a coin to replace the Maria Theresa Thaler. 3.3 External Aggressions and the Unity of Ethiopian People in Defence of National Sovereignty (1871-1896)  The territorial integrity of Ethiopia had been threatened by foreign aggressors like Egypt during Khedive Ismail, the Mahdist Sudan in the 1880’s, Great Britain during the Napier expedition and Italy in the 1880’s and 1890’s.  Tewodros’s detention of British and European citizens led to the coming of the British mission to Ethiopia under the leadership of Sir Robert Napier which led to the downfall of Tewodros.  The Egyptians perennial quest to dominate the sources of the Abay River reached its climax during the reign of Yohannes IV.  However, Yohannes defeated the Egyptians’ at the battles of Gundet and Gura in 1875 and 1876 respectively.  The confrontation between Yohannes IV and the Mahdists caused by Yohannes’s signing of the Hewett or Adwa Treaty in 1884 with the Anglo-Egyptians led to the tragic death of Yohannes IV at Matamma.  Yohannes IV also managed to contain the advance of the Italians into the northern part of Ethiopia and even scored a resounding victory over the Italians at Dogali in 1887.  Menelik’s love and hate relations with Italians reached a climax with the signing of the Treaty of Wuchale in 1889.  However, the difference between the Amharic and the Italian versions of article XVII of the treaty became the causes of the conflict between Italy and Ethiopia.  Hence, it became cause for the Battle of Adwa, where the Ethiopians scored a shattering victory over the Italians.  “Tewodros held Consul Cameron directly responsible for the lack of response to his letter of 1862 to Queen Victoria of England. He also suspected him of conspiring with the “Turks”, i.e. the Egyptians, against him”.  Survival of Ethiopian independence was put to utmost test in the 2 nd half of 19th C.  Emperor Tewodros’s modernization emanated mainly from understanding of this danger to Ethiopia.  Thus, he needed the technical support of Europe, particularly, from Britain, both against Egypt, and to assist him in modernizing the country. 7|P ag e   As a result, in 1862, Tewodros sent a letter to Queen Victoria of Great Britain requesting military assistance through Consul Cameron.  Cameron came back to Ethiopia via Egypt without any response.  On learning about the imprisonment of the Europeans, Queen Victoria sent a letter through Hormuzd Rassem, which did not satisfy Tewodros.  After some communications, the British parliament decided to take military action.  To free their citizens arrested by Tewodros, British sent a large military expedition commanded by Sir Robert Napier in 1867.  With the help of local allies who had their ambitions and grievances against Tewodros, such as Kasa Mercha of Tigray, the British were able to penetrate into the interior.  On 10 April 1868, up to 8,000 Tewodros’ soldiers, including his general Gebriye tried to check the advancing British forces but was defeated at the battle of Aroge.  The following day, on 11 April 1868, Tewodros released his European captives and on 13 April, 1868, Tewodros committed suicide at Maqdala.  This was followed by the burning of his fortress and looting of treasures. 8|P ag e    The British showed no interest to remain in control of the country and thus left immediately.  However, the easy way in which the British accomplished their mission in Ethiopia created a false impression on the Egyptians about Ethiopia.  So, they immediately showed a keen interest to occupy Northeast Africa, including Ethiopia, with the ambition of controlling the source of the Nile.  After making initial encroachments along the Ethiopian side of the Red Sea, they prepared a very grand campaign to control the whole of the country.  That came in 1875, when Khedive Ismail Pasha of Egyptian leader, sent his troops to invade Ethiopia in three directions.  First; the Zeila front led by Mohammed Rauf Pasha which resulted in the occupation of Harar Emirate (1875 to 1885).  Second; front was led by Werner Munzinger, the architect of the whole of Ismail‟s scheme for the invasion of Ethiopia, and started from Tajura (Djibouti) but was annihilated by the Afar.  Third; Colonel Arendrup and Arakel Bey led another 2,000 well-armed troops through Massawa.  Emperor Yohannes IV and his general Ras Alula mobilized about 20,000 forces and encountered the Egyptians at the Battle of Gundat (16 November 1875), in which the Egyptian troops were severely defeated.  The Egyptians again reorganized their forces and sent army to invade Ethiopia.  However, they were defeated at the Battle of Gura (7–9 March 1876).  The other foreign and most dangerous power which came to challenge Ethiopian independence in the last quarter of the nineteenth century was Italy.  With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Red Sea region had acquired great strategic and commercial importance.  The Italian foothold on the Horn of Africa began when an Italian private shipping company (Rubatino) had bought the port of Assab from the local chiefs in 1869.  The port was transferred to the Italian government in 1882.  Moreover, Great Britain secretly transferred Massawa from Egypt to Italy in 1885.  Using these bases as a springboard, Italy began penetrating northern Ethiopia, Mereb Melash. 9|P ag e   But they were defeated decisively at the Battle of Dogali by Ras Alula Engida in 1887, Emperor Yohannes’s famous general and right-hand man.  There was a parallel development in the northwestern part of the country bordering Sudan.  The struggle of the Sudanese people against Egyptian occupation had gathered momentum and drove them out of most of the country and encircled the remaining Egyptian troops in the Kassala area of Eastern Sudan.  The only way the Egyptians could save their lives was via Massawa through the cooperation of Ethiopia.  So, the British brokered a treaty known as the Hewett Treaty between Ethiopia and Egypt in 1884.  According to the Hewett Treaty, Ethiopia agreed to facilitate the evacuation of Egyptian soldiers encircled by the Mahdist in eastern Sudan in return for,  the use of Massawa by Ethiopia.  The Ethiopian involvement infuriated the Mahdists and became the main cause for the clashes between the Mahdists of Sudan and Ethiopian forces that lasted from 1885 to 1889.  The first clash between the two came at Kufit in September 1885, when the Ethiopian forces were victorious.  However, when Emperor Yohannes IV was in northern Ethiopia busy with the task of checking the Italian advance to Marab Milash, the Mahdists caused a lot of destruction to churches and monasteries, including the killing of the clergy and the laity.  In January 1887, Yohannes ordered Nigus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam to repulse the Mahdists. A year later, the Mahdists led by Abu Anja, defeated Nigus Tekle-Haimanot’s troops at Sar Wuha in Dembia.  At this important juncture, Nigus Menilek and Nigus Tekle-Haymanot conspired against the emperor, instead of directly facing the Mahdists.  Now, Emperor Yohannes faced what is called the triangular tension,  namely the Italians in the north,  Mahdists in the west and northwest, and  his two vassals in the centre.  As a result, Emperor Yohannes made the following national call as follows;-  “የኢትዮጵያ ህዝብ ሆይ ኢትዮጵያ የተባለችዉ ሀገር:  1ኛ እናትህ ናት፤ * 2ኛ ክብርህ ናት፤  3ኛ ሚስትህ ናት፤ * 4ኛ ልጅህ ናት፤ * 5ኛ መቃብርህ ናት።  እንግዲህ;  የእናትን ፍቅር፣ * የዘዉድን ክብር፣  የሚስትን የዋህነት፣ *የልጅን ደስታ፣ * የመቃብርን ከባቲነት አስበህ ተነስ!”  “Literally, Oh! The people of Ethiopia, The country called Ethiopia is; stly ndly  1 , your mother, * 2 your crown, rdly thly thly  3 , your wife, * 4 your child, 5 your grave.  Accordingly, rise understanding the;  Love of a mother, * Honor of a crown,  The goodness of a wife, * The delight of having a child, and  The shelter of a grave”.  Hence, on 9 March 1889, Emperor marched to Metemma where he died fighting the Mahdists.  Internal divisions and hostilities among rulers would result in a huge cost to the country and its people; eg; Maqdala and Metemma are very good testimonies.  Italians advance in the northeast was temporarily checked by Yohannes IV forces.  But, following his death, Menilek II have responsibility of keeping territorial integrity of the country.  Italians used Wuchale treaty to advance their colonial interests. 10 | P a g e   The treaty was signed by King Menilek II and, Italian representative, Count Pietro Antonelli in Wuchale town, on 2 May 1889 to promote friendship and trade between the two countries. It have 20 articles,  There were slight, but crucial, differences between Italian and Amharic versions of the treaty which created misunderstandings between the two countries.  Article XVII of the treaty in its Amharic version indicated that;  Ethiopian Emperor “could” use the good offices of the Italian government in his dealings with other foreign powers (option), while  The Italian text of the treaty made it “obligatory”.  Upon failing to get the revision of the treaty from the Italians, Emperor Menilek unilaterally abrogated the treaty in 1893.  To achieve their intentions, Italians crossed the Marab River, arrived at Adigrat, and proceeded to Amba-Alage.  This Italians steady encroachment onto north Ethiopia and the need to defend the territorial integrity of the country has been made clear by Emperor Menilek’s call for mobilization.  አሁንም አገር የሚያጠፋ ሃይማኖት የሚለዉጥ ጠላት እግዚአብሔር የወሰነልንን የባህር በር አልፎ መጥቷልና …….እንደ ፍልፈል መሬት ይቆፍር ጀመር፡፡  አሁን ግን በእግዚአብሔር ረደትነት አገሬን አሳልፌ አልሰጠዉም፡፡… ጉልበት ያለህ በጉልበትህ እርዳኝ ፡፡ ጉልበት የሌለህ ለልጅህ ለምሽትህ ለሃይማኖትህ ስትል በሀዘን እርዳኝ፡፡  Enemies have now come upon us to ruin the country and to change our religion by crossing the sea coast which „God‟ gave us as our frontier.  Our enemies have begun the affair by advancing and digging into the country like moles. With the help of God, I will not deliver up my country to them.  Today, you who are strong give me of your strength, and you who are weak, help me by prayer.  አሁንም አገር የሚያጠፋ ሃይማኖት የሚለዉጥ ጠላት እግዚአብሔር የወሰነልንን የባህር በር አልፎ መጥቷልና …….እንደ ፍልፈል መሬት ይቆፍር ጀመር፡፡  አሁን ግን በእግዚአብሔር ረደትነት አገሬን አሳልፌ አልሰጠዉም፡፡… ጉልበት ያለህ በጉልበትህ እርዳኝ ፡፡ ጉልበት የሌለህ ለልጅህ ለምሽትህ ለሃይማኖትህ ስትል በሀዘን እርዳኝ፡፡  Enemies have now come upon us to ruin the country and to change our religion by crossing the sea coast which „God‟ gave us as our frontier.  Our enemies have begun the affair by advancing and digging into the country like moles. With the help of God, I will not deliver up my country to them.  Today, you who are strong give me of your strength, and you who are weak, help me by prayer.  Following Menilek’s proclamation for general mobilization, about 100,000 troops from every part of the country gathered at „Wara-Illu‟ (in South Wallo).  The people marched to the front irrespective of gender, regional, and ethnic differences to fight against Italian aggression.  A force led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu defeated Italians at Amba-Alage and forced them to retreat to Mekelle.  In January 1896, under the leadership of Ras Mekonnen, Ethiopian forces defeated the Italians at Mekelle. At Mekelle, they came under siege that prevented their access to a well, which they used for drinking.  The strategy was commonly called the “Siege of Mekelle” and was believed to be designed by Empress Taytu.  After some negotiations, the besieged Italian troops were set free and left Mekele, and joined their compatriots at Adwa.  The last and decisive phase of the war was fought at Adwa on March 1st 1896. 11 | P a g e   The Ethiopian forces were led by Emperor Menilek, Empress Taytu and war generals like Ras Mikael, Ras Mokonen, Ras Alula, Ras Mangasha and Nigus Tekle-Haymanot.  Effects of the Battle;-  The battle was a remarkable victory for Ethiopians.  about 8,000 Italian fighters were killed, 1,500 wounded, and 3,000 were captured.  Of three Italian generals, two of them i.e., General Arimondi and General Dabormida lost their lives while  General Albertone was captured.  On Ethiopian side, about 4,000-6,000 troops are said to have been killed.  It had a profound impact on both Ethio-Italy and the people who were fighting for their independence and rights all over the world.  Ethiopia was concerned, its status as an independent sovereign state that recognized by the great powers of the world.  The first country to do so was Italy itself.  By the treaty of Addis Ababa signed on October 26, 1896, and which concluded the war,  Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia.  Several powers of the time like; Italy, France, Britain, Russia, the U.S.A Germany, Belgium, Turkey, and others also recognized Ethiopia as a sovereign state and  They all opened their legations in Addis Ababa.  It consolidating national integration.  It served as a symbol of unity, independence and national pride for all Ethiopians.  It was the first decisive victory of black people over a powerful white European power.  it also served as a source of pride and motivation for all black people.  In Italy, too, The Italian dream of reducing Ethiopia to a colony ended in failure, the defeat led to the collapse of the government of Premier Francesco Crispi. 3.3 The Inception of Power Struggle among Ruling Elites (1906-1935); Learning outcomes of the lesson; At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to: Pinpoint the measures Emperor Menilek took in order to avert power struggle among his successors; Describe the reforms of Lij Iyasu; Analyze the salient features of the period of diarchy; and Identify the measures Emperor Haile Selassie took to consolidate his absolute power;  The year 1906 regarded as a watershed moment in post-Adwa Ethiopia's political history.  B/c, Menilek suffered his first stroke, an illness that would claim his life seven years later.  This was made worse by the death of his cousin, Ras Mekonnen Walda-Mikael, in the same year, who was widely expected to replace him on the throne.  As a result, the issue of succession has arisen.  In the same year, surrounding colonial powers, United Kingdom, France, and Italy, formed a Tripartite Treaty, assuming that Ethiopia would fall into disorder if Menilek died.  Accordingly signatory nations will have;-  Britain will have a sphere of influence over the Nile basin,  France will have a sphere of influence along the railway zone,  Italy interested the hinterlands of Eritrea, northeast Ethiopia to Italian Somaliland as its part.  Therefore, to address the looming crisis of succession and power vacuum;- 1) In 1907, Emperor Menilek established Ethiopia's first cabinet (council of ministers), 12 | P a g e  2) In 1909, he named his grandson, Lij Iyasu as his successor (regent) & Ras Tesema Nadaw his hair,  Meanwhile, Empress Taytu faced stiff opposition from Shewan nobles, who forced to abstain from participating in the country's politics in 1910.  The reign of Lij-Iyasu and his Reforms (1911-1916);-  Iyasu began to wield his full powers with the fall of Taytu (1910) and the death of Ras Tesema Nadaw (1911),  Thus, his de facto rule lasted from (1911 to1916).  He maintained Menelik's modernization agenda like;-  He enhanced laws and regulations,  he announced a series of actions and policies that described as progressive,  He introduction of Addis Ababa's first police force (Terumbule).  He removed traditional Quragna system of tying plaintiffs and defenders together, while tried to reform property ownership and taxation,  He outlawed the indigenous institution of lebeshay, or magical thief catchers.  But, some of his actions brought together internal and external forces, eventually leading to his overthrow in 1916.  Through successful palace revolt (Mehal Sefari), Iyasu deposed on September 27, 1916, and Zewditu, (Menelik's daughter), was crowned empress of Ethiopia on Feb. 1, 1917.  Dejjach Teferi Mekonen was promoted to the rank of ‘Ras’ and named successor to the throne.  Following Iyyasu's removal from power by a palace coup, Iyyasu's father, Nigus Mikael, tried unsuccessfully to reverse the coup.  His plans were thwarted when his soldiers were decisively defeated and he was captured by the Shewan army, led by Ras Teferi, at Sagale on October 27, 1916, in the deadliest battle since Adwa.  Diarchy Rule (1917-1930);-  Power was shared b/n Empress Zewditu, and Teferi Mekonnen,  The start of a difficult and unusual period of dual governance,  The time characterized by ongoing dispute between Empress Zewditu's adherents, known as „conservative‟ or indigenous camp on one hand, and  The „progressive‟ prince Teferi Mekonnen and his supporters on the other.  Conservative camp led by Fitawrari Habte Giorgis Dinagde.  The expulsion of all ministers in 1918, except Habte Giorgis Dinagde, (War Minister) from (1907-926).  Habte Giorgis died peacefully in December 1926, putting an end to their silent struggle. 13 | P a g e   Nonetheless, there were several open challenges to the regent's expanding power.  Dejjach Balcha Safo, (governor of Sidamo), but,  He removed from his governorship in 1928,  Ras Gugsa Wale, (governor of Begemedir and ex-husband of Zewditu,) who defeated at the Battle of Anchim in 1930.  The coronation of Ras Teferi as „Negus‟ in 1928 and as „Emperor‟ in 1930 marked the beginning of Haile Selassie’s autocracy.  After gaining virtual control of power, the emperor implemented a series of reforms and adjustments aimed at setting the groundwork for autocratic rule. A. In 1931 first written Constitution; provided legal framework for Haile Selassie's emerging autocratic rule.  The constitution recognized the emperor's unrestricted rights to make appointments and dismiss officials, administering justice, declare and end wars, and grant lands and honors.  The provincial hereditary aristocracy lost a lot of political influence with 1931 Constitution.  With the exception of Tigray, (permitted to be ruled by descendants of its local hereditary chiefs),  other provinces lost their internal autonomy and  Replaced by individuals nominated directly by the Emperor. B. Formation of a National army; was a measure in which emperor attempted to consolidate his power.  In 1930, Belgian officers began training the Imperial Bodyguard.  In 1934, first officer training school was established at Holeta Ganat, by a Swedish military mission.  The first batch of officers three year training program was disrupted by the Italian invasion.  Rather than career officers, the cadets began to make history as passionate patriots. 3.5 Fascist Italian Aggression and Patriotic Resistance; 14 | P a g e