Unit 2 Modules 2.1a, 2.1b Lecture Slides PDF

Lecture Slides to accompany Note that this presentation contains copyrighted material. This slide deck is only intended for use in class or on a secure, password-protected classroom site. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer,...

Lecture Slides to accompany Note that this presentation contains copyrighted material. This slide deck is only intended for use in class or on a secure, password-protected classroom site. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©BFW Publishers Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers Learning Targets LT 2.1-1 Explain how selective attention directs our perceptions. LT 2.1-2 Explain how our expectations, contexts, motivation, and emotions influence our perceptions. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-1 Explain how selective attention directs our perceptions. Selective attention: focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus. We often perceive the world as we are, rather than as it is. Our past experiences, emotions, attention, and expectations can influence how we perceive the stimuli received by our sensory systems. Attention is generally limited to one thing at a time, so perception is influenced by which stimuli we notice amongst all present stimuli. Selective attention is decided by importance. The cocktail party effect ̶ how we can perceive our own names amongst a cacophony of other sounds ̶ is a great example of selective attention. Distracted driving occurs because many misunderstand how attention works. Focus shifts between tasks; we cannot truly consciously multi-task. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-1 Explain how selective attention directs our perceptions. Inattentional blindness: failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere. Change blindness: failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-1 Explain how selective attention directs our perceptions. Attention’s purpose is to allow us to focus, but because of its limitations, we fail to perceive much of the stimuli in our environments. Inattentional blindness occurs when we miss visible stimuli because our attention is focused on a task. The invisible gorilla studies show this effect, when viewers missed the gorilla in the scene because they were focused on counting the basketball passes. Often if they saw the gorilla, they lost count of the passes. Change blindness, a type of inattentional blindness, is often the culprit in accidents. We miss the changes our brain deems unimportant and sometimes that can have dramatic effects. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-2 Explain how our expectations, contexts, motivation, and emotions influence our perceptions. Perceptual set: a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. Our brain’s explanation of incoming sensations is influenced by experience, expectations, context, motivation, and emotion. Top-down processing of stimuli connects what we see to what we expect to see. This phenomenon is called perceptual set. Perceptual set can influence not only what we see, but also the other senses like hearing and taste. Our thoughts, like stereotypes about people and events, can also be influenced by our expectations and experiences. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers  Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-2 Explain how our expectations, contexts, motivation, and emotions influence our perceptions. In addition to perceptual set, context, motivation, and emotion can influence our perceptions. Top-down processing can influence how we hear words by analyzing them in context with the other words in a sentence. Culture can frame interpretations of situations and behaviors. Motivation, both for biological needs and incentives, can influence how we perceive the signals we receive. For example, a thirsty person will perceive a water bottle as being closer, and a task may seem harder if we are tired. Emotions also change how we see the world; feelings manipulate perception. The bottom line is that our perception is not just connected to the physical stimuli, but is influenced by a combination of many other internal and contextual factors. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers Learning Targets LT 2.1-3 Explain the Gestalt psychologists’ understanding of perceptual organization, and explain how figure-ground and grouping principles contribute to our perceptions. LT 2.1-4 Explain how we use binocular and monocular cues to see three dimensions, and discuss how we perceive motion. LT 2.1-5 Explain how perceptual constancies help us construct meaningful perceptions. LT 2.1-6 Explain what research on restored vision, sensory restriction, and perceptual adaptation reveals about the effects of experience on perception. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-3 Explain the Gestalt psychologists’ understanding of perceptual organization, and explain how figure-ground and grouping principles contribute to our perceptions. Gestalt: an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. To create meaning, sensations must be organized and interpreted; we have default mechanisms to help with this task. Gestalt psychologists noticed that humans tend to organize bits of information into wholes. Sometimes, the whole is all we can see, as the organization often happens unconsciously. We filter incoming information and construct perceptions. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-3 Explain the Gestalt psychologists’ understanding of perceptual organization, and explain how figure-ground and grouping principles contribute to our perceptions. Figure-ground: the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground). Grouping: the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-3 Explain the Gestalt psychologists’ understanding of perceptual organization, and explain how figure-ground and grouping principles contribute to our perceptions. Figure-ground and grouping are two main ways in which sensations are organized. We organize information to stand out against its background in both hearing and vision. Seeing the figure as clear and the ground as less detailed allows us to focus our attention. Grouping rules are the default way in which we organize the world around us, sometimes by proximity, sometimes by continuity or closure. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers  Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-4 Explain how we use binocular and monocular cues to see three dimensions, and discuss how we perceive motion. Depth perception: the ability to see objects in three dimensions, although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance. Visual cliff: a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-4 Explain how we use binocular and monocular cues to see three dimensions, and discuss how we perceive motion. Organization of stimuli allows us to perceive depth and distance in our world. All visual stimuli are reflected onto the retina in two-dimensional images, and yet we can perceive depth in our environment. To study this phenomenon, researchers use the visual cliff, where 6- to 14-month-old children are placed on an apparatus that mimics a cliff. Babies that had just learned to crawl were more likely to cross the cliff when coaxed by a parent than those that had been crawling for a few months. Depth perception seems to develop over time and with the advent of independent movement. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-4 Explain how we use binocular and monocular cues to see three dimensions, and discuss how we perceive motion. Binocular cues: a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of both eyes. Convergence: a cue to a nearby object’s distance, enabled by the inward angle of the eyes. Retinal disparity: a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance — the greater the disparity between two images, the closer the object. Monocular cue: a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-4 Explain how we use binocular and monocular cues to see three dimensions, and discuss how we perceive motion. Cues in the environment help us to judge depth, distance , and motion. Binocular cues require two eyes and combine sensations from both to create depth. Convergence, a binocular cue, uses the inward angle of the eye to perceive depth. The more convergence, the nearer an object. Each eye projects a slightly different image onto the retina. As the brain compares and integrates these, depth is perceived. The more retinal disparity between the images, the closer the object. Monocular cues use either eye’s images to perceive depth. Linear position and interposition use an object’s surrounding environment to determine how far away it is. Relative height, size, and motion use location, dimensions, and movement of an object to determine its distance. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-4 Explain how we use binocular and monocular cues to see three dimensions, and discuss how we perceive motion. Stroboscopic movement: an illusion of continuous movement (as in a motion picture) experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images. Phi phenomenon: an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in succession. Autokinetic effect: the illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-4 Explain how we use binocular and monocular cues to see three dimensions, and discuss how we perceive motion. Motion is perceived in the mind similarly to depth: comparing images to one another and the surrounding environment. We perceive shrinking objects as moving further away, and growing objects as approaching us. The size of objects also affects how fast we see them as moving; we interpret larger objects as moving more slowly than smaller ones. We create about 15, 000 unnoticed moments just by blinking, but our brains do not perceive these gaps. Rather, the brain fills them in with perception. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-4 Explain how we use binocular and monocular cues to see three dimensions, and discuss how we perceive motion. Motion is perceived in the mind similarly to depth: comparing images to one another and the surrounding environment. Stroboscopic motion refers to our perceiving a series of varying still images as continuous movement. Known as the phi phenomenon, movement can be seen in lights which blink in rapid succession. We see this play out in theater marquees and holiday lights. Eye movement can make a stationary light appear to be moving. This illusion is called the autokinetic effect. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-5 Explain how perceptual constancies help us construct meaningful perceptions. Perceptual constancy: perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change. Color constancy: perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-5 Explain how perceptual constancies help us construct meaningful perceptions. Due to experience and expectations, our brains often hold perception constant even if stimuli changes. The perceptual constancies include those for color, brightness, shape, and size. Color constancy is experienced when familiar objects are seen as the same color even if the lighting conditions have changed. Brightness or lightness constancy depends upon relative luminance: the amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings. Our brains may ignore the actual images focused on the retinas to retain the shape and size of familiar objects. Context, or the surrounding stimuli of an object, affects how we perceive it. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers LT 2.1-6 Explain what research on restored vision, sensory restriction, and perceptual adaptation reveals about the effects of experience on perception. Perceptual adaptation: the ability to adjust changed sensory input , including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field. When sensations are restored, perception does not always follow. In cases where vision has been restored after a period of blindness, the person can see stimuli in their environment, but doesn’t always understand what they are looking at. The brain plasticity of a young person allows for better perceptual recovery than that of an older adult. There is a critical period in which perceptual abilities are connected to the sensations we do or don’t receive. Humans have great adaptation ability to distorted visual input. In experiments where inversion goggles were worn, people adjusted after a brief period of discomfort. Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e ©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers