Plant Breeding - Unit 1 PDF

UNIT -1 Introduction to plant breeding : Historical development, concept, nature and role of plant breeding. Major achievements and future prospects and genetics in relation to plant breeding. Domestication germplasm conservation and plant introduction : Domestic...

UNIT -1 Introduction to plant breeding : Historical development, concept, nature and role of plant breeding. Major achievements and future prospects and genetics in relation to plant breeding. Domestication germplasm conservation and plant introduction : Domestication, acclimatization and introduction, centres of origin/diversity. PLANT BREEDING “It is an art, science and technology which deals with genetic improvement of crop plants in relation to their economic use for mankind.”  ROLE OF PLANT BREEDING 1. Food 2. Shelter 3. Clothing 4. Drugs : Ranwolfia serpentina, Withania somnifera 5. Fuel: Euphorbia, Jatropha, Maize  HISTORY OF PLANT BREEDING In broad sense history of plant breeding can be divided into 4 parts : 1. Pre Mendelian era:- before 1900 2. Mendelian era:- 1900 to 1920. 3. Post Mendelian era:- 1921 to 1950 4. Modern era:- after 1950 1. Pre Mendelian era:- 700 BC Assyrians and Babylonians - Hand pollination of date palm 1665 Hooke (England) –known as father of cell-biology. 1676 Millington - Anthers function as male organs 1694 Camerarius (Germany) - First to demonstrate sex in plants. 1717 Fairchild – produced the first artificial hybrid, popularly known as Fairchild҆s mule 1753 Linnaeus - Published "Species Plantarum". 1779 Knight - Emphasized the practical aspects of hybrids. 1801 Lamarck - Theory of evolution 1819 Shirreff - Utilized pure line selection. 1831 Brown - nucleus 1837-38 Schleiden and Schwann - cell theory 1859-89 Darwin - Published "Origin of Species" 1866 Mendel - Published "Experiments in plant hybridization" 1884 Strasburger - Demonstrated fertilization 1899 Novaschin and Guignard - Discovered double fertilization 1899 Hopkins - Described ear to row selection method. 2. Mendelian era:- 1900 Correns (Germany), DeVries (Holland) and Von Tschermak (Austria) - rediscovered Mendel҆s laws of heredity. Bateson- Introduced the terms "allelomorph", "homozygote", "heterozygote ", "F1" and "F2" 1902 DeVries (Holland) - mutation theory of evolution 1903 Johannsen - pure line theory of selection 1904 Hannig - embryo culture 1906 Bateson - term "genetics“ 1908 Nilsson- Ehle –multiple factor hypothesis 1908-09 Hardy (England) and Weinberg (Germany) –Hardy- Weinberg law. 1914 Shull - Introduced the term "heterosis " Blakeslee - Discovered trisomics in Datura. 3. Post Mendelian era:- 1927 Muller - Reported artificial mutations in animals by X-rays 1928 Stadler - Described the mutagenic effects of X-rays in barley 1931 Stern, Creighton and McClintock - cytological proof of crossing-over 1933 Rhoades - cytoplasmic male sterility in maize 1944 Avery, MacLeod and McCarty – DNA is the hereditary material 1945 Hull - recurrent selection method 1946 Comstock et al. - Reciprocal (half-sib) recurrent selection 1950 McClintock – Jumping genes 4. Modern era:- 1952 Jensen - multilines in Oats. 1955 Benzer – Cistron, recon and muton. 1963 Vanderplank – vertical and horizontal resistance. 1964 N.E.Borlaug – Green revolution. 1968 Donald – Crop ideotype 1978 - 1st Rice hybrid (CMS based) for commercial cultivation in China. 1983 –1st transgenic (genetically engineered) plant of Tobacco in U.S.A. 1987 –1st transgenic cotton plant by Monsanto company in U.S.A. 1994 – Flavr Savr tomato was introduced by Calgene company of California.  HISTORY OF PLANT BREEDING IN INDIA 1871- Government of India created the Department of Agriculture. 1905- Imperial Agricultural Research Institute was established in Pusa (Bihar) 1921- The Indian Central cotton committee was established. 1929- Imperial Council of Agricultural Research was established in New Delhi. 1936- Imperial Agricultural Research Institute shifted to its present location in New Delhi. 1956- Project for Intensification of Regional Research on Cotton, Oilseeds and Millets (PIRCOM) 1957- All India Coordinated Maize Improvement Project 1961- First Maize hybrid released(Ganga1, Ganga101, Deccan and Ranjit) 1964- First Sorghum hybrid (CSH-1) was released. 1965- First Bajra hybrid (HB-1) was released. 1991 – 1st pigeon pea hybrid (ICPH-8)  NATURE OF PLANT BREEDING Plant breeding is an art or science present breeding methods are entirely based on the scientific principles like; genetics a cytogenetic. It is based on observation, formulation of hypothesis, experimentation and conclusion either to accept or reject the hypothesis. After Mendel discovery require more knowledge of science. modern plant breeding is based on through understanding and use of genetics principles. Plant breeder must know about difference disciplines viz. genetics, cytology, Morphology and Taxonomy, plant Physiology, Plant Pathology, Entomology, Agronomy, and Soil Science, Biochemistry, Statistics, and Biometrics. Computer and Plant biotechnology. Thus plant breeding is an art science and a technology of developing genetically superior plants OBJECTIVES OF PLANT BREEDING 1. Higher Yield: 2. Improved Quality: 3. Disease and Pest Resistance: 4. Maturity Duration: 5. Agronomic Characters: 6. Photo and Thermo Insensitivity: 7. Synchronous Maturity: 8. Non-Shattering Characteristics: 9. Determinate Growth Habit: 10. Dormancy: 11. Varieties for a New Season: 12. Moisture Stress and Salt Tolerance: 13. Elimination of Toxic Substance: 14. Wider Adaptability: 1. Higher Yield: Higher yield of grain, fodder, fibre, sugar, oil etc, developing hybrid varieties of Jowar, Maize, Bajara, etc. 2. Improved Quality:  The quality characters may vary from one crop to another such as grain size, shape, colour, milling and baking quality of wheat, cooking quality in rice, malting in barley.  Size, colour and flavour of fruits and keeping quality of vegetables, protein content in legumes, methionine and tryptophan contents in pulses etc. 3. Disease and Pest Resistance: Resistant varieties offer the cheapest and most convenient method of disease and pest control. They not only helps to increase the production but also stabilize the productivity. e.g. Rust resistance in wheat. 4. Maturity Duration: It permits new crop rotation and extends crop area. Thus breeding for early maturing varieties suitable for different dates of planting. This enables the farmer to take two-three crops in a year. 5. Agronomic Characters: These includes the characters such as dwarfness, profuse tillering, branching erect, resistant and fertilizer responsiveness. Tillering Dwarf Vs Tall varieties in wheat 6. Photo and Thermo Insensitivity: Development of photo and thermo insensitive varieties in rice and wheat will permit to extend their cultivation to new areas. E.g Cultivation of Wheat in Kerala and West Bengal Cultivation of Rice in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. 7. Synchronous Maturity: It is desirable in crops like mung ( Vigna radiata) where several pickings are necessary. 8. Non-Shattering Characteristics: E.g. Mung, Black Gram, Horse Gram, etc. Mung Soybean 9. Determinate Growth Habit: It is desirable in mung, pigeon pea and cotton, etc. Determinate Indeterminate soybean 10. Dormancy: A dormant seed is one that is unable to germinate in a specified period of time under a combination of environmental factors that are normally suitable for the germination of the non-dormant seed. In some crops, seeds germinate even before harvesting if there are rains at the time of maturity. E.g Mung, barley, etc. Fig. seed germination on mother plant 11. Varieties for a New Season: Breeding crops suitable for seasons. E.g Maize (Kharif) which is grown in Rabi and summer also. 12. Moisture Stress and Salt Tolerance: Development of varieties for a rainfed area and saline soils would help to increase crop production in India. 13. Elimination of Toxic Substance: It will help to make them safe for consumption E.g Khesari ( Lathyrus sativus) seeds have a neurotoxin causing paralysis, brassica oil has erucic acid. 14. Wider Adaptability: It helps in stabilizing the crop production over region and seasons.  ACHIEVEMENTS OF PLANT BREEDING A) Production of dwarf and semi dwarf cereal varieties: B) Nobilisation of sugarcane C) Development of hybrid and synthetics A) Production of Dwarf and Semi Dwarf Cereal Varieties: Many dwarf and semi dwarf varieties are developed in crops like wheat and rice. Dr. Borlaug used NORIN-10 as a source of dwarfing gene, in wheat at CIMMYT (Mexico). Variety Kalyan Sona and Sonalika were selected from these materials. Similarly the development of semi dwarf varieties of Rice has revolutionized rice cultivation. These varieties were developed by introducing the gene from japonica variety Dee-Geo-Woo-Gen. Ex TN. 1 developed at Taiwan and IR-8 at IRRI, Philippines, both were introduced in India in 1966.  Semi dwarf Wheat and Rice Sources of semi dwarf rice Dee-geo-woo-gen IR8(Taiwan) Jaya, Ratna(India) Sources of semi dwarf wheat Rht1, Rht2, Rht1+Rht2 Rht1+Ppd1/Ppd2 Rht2+Ppd1/Ppd2. Kalyan Sona, Sonalika. B) Nobilisation of Sugarcane: The Indian canes were of Saccharum barberi, largely grown in North India. They were hardy but poor in yield and sugar content, ……while tropical noble cane of Saccharum officinarum had thicker stem and higher sugar content but it performed badly in North India due to low winter temperature. C.A Barber and T.S Venkatraman at Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore, transferred thick stem, higher sugar content and other desirable characters from the Noble cane to Indian cane is commonly referred as Nobilisation on of Indian canes. C) Development of Hybrid and Synthetic: 1. Maize: Ganga series of hybrid, Ganga safed-2, African Tall, Manjari, Deccan etc. 2. Sorghum : CSH-1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,910,12,14 and 15 R. 3. Bajara: WCC-75, PHB-10, ICTP-8203, Shraddha and Saburi. 4. Cotton: H-4, Var.Laxmi, Savitri, NH-44, Jaylaxmi, etc. Indian Scientist: 1. Dr. M.S. Swaminathan – Mutation breeding 2. Maheshwari and Guha (1964)- Produced haploid plant in Vitro from pollen grain. 3. C.A.Barber and T.S venkatraman – Nobilisation of sugarcane. 4. Dr. Athwal – Bajra breeder. 5. K. Ramiah- Rice breeder 6. Dr. N.G.P. Rao – Sorghum breeder 7. Pushkarnath - Potato Breeder 8. Ram Dhan Singh- Wheat breeder 9. C. T Patel- Cotton breeder  Scope of Plant Breeding (Future Prospects) I) Genetic manipulation of population by increasing the frequency of desirable alleles in cross pollinated crops and introducing male sterility in self pollinated crops like wheat and rice. II) Intensive breeding of pulses and oil seed crops as it was done in cereals and other crops. III) Proper breeding methods with improved crop management practices. IV) Use of heritability methods with improved crop management practices. V) Development of improved high yielding varieties of vegetable and seed crops. VI) Quality Improvement in Oil seed and Vegetables. VII) Use of transgenic plants. E.g. Bt-Cotton, rice, tomato. Activities in Plant Breeding  DOMESTICATION “Domestication is the process of bringing wild species under human management.” All crops grown today have undergone extensive genetic change from their wild ancestors. The first domesticated plants were cereals, legumes and other species used for their  PROCESS OF DOMESTICATION 1)Natural Selection Mechanism of Natural selection given by Nichlson 1962 i) Environmental selection ii) Competition 2) Artificial Selection PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION IN CROPS 1. Mendelian Variation 2. Interspecific Hybridization 3. Polyploidy  Plant Introduction Plant introduction consists of taking a genotype or a group of genotypes of plants into new environments where they were not being grown before  PLANT INTRODUCTION PRIMARY INTRODUCTION SECONDARY INTRODUCTION Dr. H. B. SINGH – Renowned Plant Explorer  Types of Plant Introduction Based on adaptation Primary Introduction - Variety is well adopted to the new environment, released for commercial cultivation without any alteration in the original genotype. Ex. Sonora 64, Lerma Roja and TN-1, IR-8 and IR-36 Secondary Introduction - Introduced variety may be subjected to selection & hybridization to isolate a superior variety ex. Kalyan Sona and sonalika Conti… Based on utilization Direct Introduction–new variety takes no time for establishment Indirect Introduction–new variety takes some time for establishment Exotic variety–foreign variety directly recommended for commercial cultivation in new environment  Plant Introduction Agencies World wide IBPGR/IPGRI (1974) – CGIAR In India NBPGR (1946) FRI BSI(1890)  AGENCIES IN INDIA National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) Forest Research Institute Botanical Survey of India NBPGR has its headquarters at IARI New Delhi  Activities of NBPGR Introduce & supplement of required germplasm Exploration & collection of valuable germplasm. Inspection & quarantine. Testing, multiplication & maintenance of germplasm. Publishing its exchange & collection list. Setting up natural gene sanctuaries.  Sources of Plant Introduction Centre of diversity Gene bank Gene sanctuaries Seed companies Farmers’ field PROCEDURE FOR PLANT INTRODUCTION 1. Procurement 2. Quarantine 3. Cataloguing 4. Evaluation 5. Multiplication 6. Distribution  Procedure of Plant Introduction Procurement of germplasm Quarantine Cataloguing Germplasm Evaluation Multiplication & Distribution  Procurement of germplasm As Gift from individuals / institutuions Purchase collection through exploration Propagules Restriction on export & introduction of plant materials  Quarantine Keeping materials in isolation to prevent the spread of diseases. Fumigation or other treatments (if necessary). According to destructive insects & pests act, 1914, quarantine for different group of plant produce is carried out by different agencies. Directorate of plant protection quarantine and storage maintaine Quarantine & fumigation centres at Seaports(8), Airports(7) & at entry point of land routes(7).  Cataloguing Accession number is given to a new introduced material Information regarding name of species & variety, place of origin, adaptation & its various features are also recorded. Cataloguing of germplasm collections is published by gene bank. The introduced materials are of 3 types & given a prefix- EC – Exotic Collection IC – Indigenous Collection IW –Indigenous Wild  Purpose of Plant Introduction Obtain an entirely new crop species (Maize, Potato, Tomato etc.) To serve as new varieties (Sonora-64, Lerma rojo – wheat. TN 1, IR 8 -Rice) To be utilized in crop improvement To save the crop from disease & pest. (Coffee was introduced in South America from Africa to prevent losses from leaf rust). To be used in scientific studies. To be used for aesthetic value. Achievements introduction as new crop species. Introductions have been directly released as variety. Varieties selected from introduction Introduction helps to develop varieties through hybridization. Merits of Plant Introduction Entirely new crop plant is derived. Quick & economical method of crop improvement. Genetic base can be broadened by plant introduction. Protection of crops from damage by introducing them in to disease free areas. Development of superior varieties through selection & hybridization by using introductions.  Demerits of Plant Introduction Introduction of weeds along with introduced materials. Introduction of diseases along with introduced materials. Introduction of insect pest along with introduced materials. Some plants introduced as ornamental species became noxious weeds. Some introduced plants are threat to the ecological balance.  CENTRES OF ORIGIN 1. PRIMARY CENTRES OF ORIGIN 2. SECONDARY CENTRES OF ORIGIN Studies Conducted At Institute Of Plant Industry, Leningrad (1916-1936) Law of Homologous Series in Variation  LIST OF CENTRES OF ORIGIN Centre of Origin Primary Centre of Origin Secondary Centre of Origin Barley , Triticum spp, jawar, bajara, gram, lentil,pea,khesari, liseed, safflower, seasamum, castor, Abyssinian Centre coffee, onion, okra,etc Broad bean ( Vicia faba) Triticum spp, rye, alfalfa, carrot, cabbage, oat, lettuce, apple, pyrus spp, prunus spp, grape, alomond, Asia Minor Centre ( Syn, near chestnut, pistachio nut, persain B.compestris , B. nigra, turnip, East or Persian Centre) clover, etc. apricot, etc. Maize, rajma, lina beans, melon, pumkin, sweet potato, arrowrrot, Central American Centre (Syn. chillies, G.hirsutum, papaya, Mexican Centre) guava, avacado, etc. Triticum aestivum , pea, mung, linseed, sasamum, safflower, hemp, G. herbaceum, radish, muskmelon, carrot, onion, garlic, Centra Asia Centre ( Syn, spinach, pear, almond, grape, Afganistan Centre) apple, etc. Rye ( Secale cereale)  Centre of Origin Primary Centre of Origin Secondary Centre of Origin Soybean , radish, bunda (Colocasia sp), proso millet, buckwheat, opium poppy, brinjal, pear, peach, apricot, plum, Maize, rajma, cowpea, turnip, China Centre orange, Chinese tea, etc seasamum, etc. Rice , pigeon pea, chickpea, cowpea, mung, brinjal, cucumber, Hindustan Centre ( Divided Indian radish , noble canes, into 1) Indoburma and 2) G.arboreum, Mango, orange, Siam-malaya- java Centre) coconut, banana, etc. Triticum spp, barley, Avena spp, lentil, pea, broad bean, lathyrus spp, chickpea, clovers, Brassica spp, onion, garlic, beets, lettuce, asparagus, lavender, peppermint, Mediterranean Centre etc. South American Centre (1. Potato, maize, pineapple, Peru, 2. Chile and 3. Brazil- pumpkin, G.b barbadense, Paraguay Centres) tomato, tobacco (1) Mexico-Guatemala, (2) Peru-Ecuador-Bolivia, (2A) Southern Chile, (2B) Southern Brazil, (3) Mediterranean, (4) Middle East, (5) Ethiopia, (6) Central Asia, (7) Indo-Burma, (7A) Siam-Malaya-Java, (8) China and Korea  CENTER OF DIVERSITY Geographic region in which greatest variability of a crop occurs. Types of Centers of Diversity of Crops The centers of crop diversity of three types viz: 1) Primary centers of diversity 2) Secondary centers of diversity 3) Micro –Centers 1. Primary Centers of Diversity: Primary centers are regions of vast genetic diversity of crop plants. These are original homes of the crop plants. Main features of these centers are given below: 1. They have wide genetic diversity. 2. Have large number of dominant genes. 3. Mostly have wild characters. 4. Natural selection operates. 2. Secondary Centers of Diversity: N.I. Vavilov (1926) suggested that valuable forms of crop plants are found far away from their primary area of origin, which he called secondary centers of diversity. These are generally the cultivated areas and have following main features. 1. Have lesser genetic diversity than primary centers. 2. Have large number of recessive genes. 3. Mostly have desirable characters. 4. Exhibit more crossing over 5. Both natural and artificial selections operate. 3. Microcenters: In some case, small areas within the centers of diversity exhibit tremendous genetic diversity of some crop plants. These areas are referred to as micro-centres. The main features of micro centers are given below: 1. They represent small areas within the centers of diversity. 2. Exhibit tremendous genetic diversity. 3. The rate of natural evolution is faster than larger areas. 4. They are important sites for the study of crop evolution. GENE BANKS Gene Banks: Gene bank refers to a place where germplasm can be conserved in living state. Gene banks are also known as germplasm banks. The germplasm is stored in the form of seeds, pollen or in vitro cultures, or in the case of a field gene bank, as plants growing in the field. Gene banks are mainly of two types, viz: 1) Seed gene banks, and 2) Field gene banks. 1. Seed Gene Bank: A place where germplasm is conserved in the form of seeds is called seed gene bank. Seeds are very convenient for storage because they occupy smaller space than whole plants. However, seeds of all crops can not be stored at low temperature in the seed banks. The germplasm of only orthodox species (whose seed can be dried to low moisture content without losing viability) can be conserved in seed banks. In the seed banks, there are three types of conservation, viz. 1) Short term:- Working collections are stored for short term (3-5 years) at 5-10 0C. 2) Medium term:- Active collection are stored for medium term (10- 15 years) at below 15 0C. 3) Long term. Base collections are conserved for long term (50 years or more) at -18 or -20 0C. Advantages of gene banks: 1. Large number of germplasm samples or entire variability can be conserved in a very small space. 2. In seed banks, handling of germplasm is easy. 3. Germplasm is conserved under pathogen and insect free environment. Disadvantages of gene banks: 1. Seeds of recalcitrant species can not be stored in seed banks. 2. Failure of power supply may lead to loss of viability and there by loss of germplasm. 3. It requires periodical evaluation of seed viability. After some time multiplication is essential to get new or fresh seeds of storage. 2. Field Gene Banks: Field gene banks also called plant gene banks are areas of land in which germplasm collections of growing plants are assembled. This is also ex-situ conservation of germplasm. Those plant species that have recalcitrant seeds or do not produce seeds readily are conserved in field gene bank. In field gene banks, germplasm is maintained in the form of plants as a permanent living collection. Eg. coconut, rubber, mango, cassava, yam, and cocoa. Advantages field gene banks: 1. It provides opportunities for continuous evaluation for various economic characters. 2. It can be directly utilized in the breeding programmes. Disadvantages field gene banks: 1. Field gene banks can not cover the entire genetic diversity of a species. It can cover only a fraction of the full range of diversity of a species. 2. The germplasm in field gene banks is exposed to pathogen and insects and some times is damaged by natural disasters such as bushfires, cyclones, floods , etc. 3. Maintenance of germplasm in the field gene banks is costly affair. Gene Banks for Various Crops in India Location of Gene Crop Species Bank Name of Research Institute Wheat Karnal Directorate of Wheat Research ( DWR) Rice Cuttack Central Rice Research Institute( CRRI) Potato Shimla Central Potato Research Institute ( CPRI) Cotton Nagpur Central Institute for Cotton Research ( CICR) Pulses Kanpur Indian Institute for Pulses Research ( IIPR) Oil seed crops Hyderabad Directorate of Oil Seed Research ( DOR) Sorghum Hyderabad National Research Centre of Sorghum Soybean Indore National Research Centre of Soybean Groundnut Junagarh National Research Centre of Groundnut Maize New Delhi Indian Agricultural Research Institute Citrus Nagpur National Research Centre of Citrus Sugarcane Coimbatore Sugarcane Breeding Institute Indian grassland and Fodder Research Forage Crop Jhansi Institute ( IGFRI) Tobacco Rajahmundry Central Tobacco Research Institute ( CTRI) International Gene Banks for Different Crops Sr. Location of No. Name of Institute Gene Bank Crops Maintained International Rice Research 1 Institute (IRRI) Philippines Rice International Wheat and Maize Maize, Wheat, 2 Improvement Centre ( CIMMYT) Mexico Triticale, Barley International Centre for Tropical Cassava, beans, Rice 3 Agriculture ( CIAT) Columbia and Maize Cowpea, Soybean, International Institute for lima bean, cassava, 4 Tropical Agriculture ( IITA) Nigeria Sweet potato. 5 International Potato Centre Peru Potato International Crop Research Sorghum, Pearl Millet, Institute for Semiarid Tropics ( pigeon pea, 6 ICRISAT) India groundnut. International Centre for Agriculture Research in Dry land Durum Wheat, Barley, 7 Areas ( ICARDA) Syria beans.