UNIT 1 MORPHEMES PDF

UNIT ONE MORPHEMES 1. DEFINITION – CHARACTERISTICS What is a morpheme? ‘A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language.’ [Richards, Platt & Weber, 1987: 183] ‘A morpheme is a short segment of l...

UNIT ONE MORPHEMES 1. DEFINITION – CHARACTERISTICS What is a morpheme? ‘A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language.’ [Richards, Platt & Weber, 1987: 183] ‘A morpheme is a short segment of language that meets three criteria: c It is a word or part of a word that has meaning. d It cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts without violation of its meaning or without meaningless remainders. e It recurs in different verbal environments with a relatively stable meaning.’ [Stageberg, 1965: 85] Ex.1: The English word unkind consists of two morphemes: the base kind the lexical meaning of which is ‘friendly and thoughtful to others’ and the prefix un– the lexical meaning of which is ‘not’; the English word talks consists of two morphemes: the base talk the lexical meaning of which is ‘say something’ and the suffix –s, which has no lexical meaning and which is used to show that the verb talks is in the third person singular present-tense form. In other words, we can recognize a morpheme by either its lexical or its grammatical meaning. Ex.2: Straight is an English adjective meaning ‘without a bend or curve’. By dividing straight, we get smaller meaningful units of trait /tre1t/, rate /re1t/and ate/e1t/; but their meanings violate the meaning of straight. We also get the meaningless remainders: /s–/, /st–/ and /str–/. Therefore, straight must be considered a morpheme, the smallest meaningful unit in English. Ex.3: Bright means ‘light’, and brighten means ‘make light’. This leads us to conclude that –en means ‘make’. We also know that –en recurs with a stable meaning in words like cheapen, darken, deepen, soften, stiffen, etc. Therefore, –en must be considered a morpheme. 2. HOW TO DISTINGUISH MORPHEMES FROM PHONEMES, SYLLABLES AND WORDS? 2.1. MORPHEMES vs. PHONEMES A morpheme differs from a phoneme in that the former has meaning whereas the latter does not. Although phonemes have no meaning, they have distinctive features that help to distinguish meaning. 9  Ex.1: The initial consonant of bitch is [− aspirated] while that of pitch is [+ aspirated]. Ex.2: The vowel of pin is [+ close] and thus [− open] while that of pan is [+ open] and thus [− close]. A morpheme may consist of only a single phoneme like the /–z/ in goes. But the phoneme /z/ and this morpheme are by no means identical. The phoneme /z/ occurs many times where it has nothing to do with this morpheme. For example, zoo /zu:/ and rose /r6υz/ both contain /z/ but the /z/ here has nothing to do with the morpheme realized as /–z/ in goes. Morphemes are generally short sequences of phonemes: the morpheme {of} consists of two phonemes — / 4 / and / v /. Most English morphemes are intermediate in size between {of} and {strange} and consist of about two to six phonemes. 2.2. MORPHEMES vs. SYLLABLES A morpheme happens to be identical to a syllable, e.g. the morpheme {strange} and the syllable /stre1nd2/; and so are many English morphemes. However, any matches between morphemes and syllables are fortuitous. Many poly-syllabic words are mono-morphemic. E.g. lion /’laI6n/: two syllables – one morpheme crocodile /’kr4k6da1l/: three syllables – one morpheme Connecticut /k6’net1k6t/: four syllables – one morpheme On the contrary, both /g6υ/ and /–z/ in goes /g6υz/ are morphemes, though altogether they are but a single syllable. That is, goes is mono-syllabic but poly-morphemic. Briefly, in some cases a morpheme may consist of one syllable or several whole syllables. In other cases, it is only part of a syllable. In fact, to form a morpheme, some phonemes are usually combined together without any regard to their status as syllables. In English, a morpheme is not identical with a syllable. The syllable is a phonological unit whereas the morpheme is the basic unit in morphology. 2.3. MORPHEMES vs. WORDS Words are made up of morphemes. In other words, morphemes are the constituents of words. A word may be composed of one or more morphemes: One morpheme: boy, desire 10  Two morphemes: boy + –ish, desir(e) + –able Three morphemes: boy + –ish + –ness, desir(e) + –abil + –ity Four morphemes: gentle + man + –li + –ness un– + desir(e) + –abil– + –ity More than four morphemes: un– + gentle + man + –li + –ness anti– + dis– + establish + –ment + –ari + –an + –ism 3. CLASSIFICATION OF MORPHEMES It is always found that morphemes can be grouped into certain classes, each with a characteristic distribution. There are two basic classes of morphemes: free morphemes and bound morphemes. Affixes are almost always bound whereas bases can be either free or bound. 3.1. BOUND MORPHEMES vs. FREE MORPHEMES 3.1.1. FREE MORPHEMES A free morpheme is ‘one that can be uttered alone with meaning’. [Stageberg, 1965: 87] A free morpheme ‘can be used on its own’. [Richards, Platt & Weber, 1987: 31] Free morphemes ‘may stand alone as words in their own right, as well as enter into the structure of other words’. [Jackson, 1980: 53] E.g. Drink is a free morpheme which occurs as a word on its own and as a free base in drinkable, undrinkable, drinking-water, drinking-fountain, etc. 3.1.2. BOUND MORPHEMES A bound morpheme ‘cannot be uttered alone with meaning. It is always annexed to one or more morphemes to form a word’. [Stageberg, 1965: 87] A bound morpheme ‘is never used alone but must be used with another morpheme’. [Richards, Platt & Weber, 1987: 31] Bound morphemes ‘may occur only if they combine with another morpheme’. [Jackson, 1980: 53] E.g. the English suffix –ing /–17/ must be used after a verb form: writing, living, driving, etc. 11  3.2. BASES (or ROOTS) vs. AFFIXES 3.2.1. A BASE (also called A ROOT) is ‘that morpheme in a word that has the principal meaning’ [Stageberg, 1965: 87-88]. It is the central morpheme, the basic part of a word. There are two kinds of bases: A FREE BASE is a base ‘which may be a word on its own right once the other morphemes have been stripped away’ [Jackson, 1980: 53]. E.g. break in unbreakable, act in deactivated, friend in friendship, etc. A BOUND BASE is a base (i.e. it is the basic part of a word and has the principal meaning) which can never occur on its own but can only be joined to other bound morphemes. E.g. The bound base of audience, audible, audition, auditory, auditorium, etc. is audi–; that of suicide, patricide, matricide, infanticide, etc. is –cide; and that of suspender, pendant, pendulum, etc. is –pend or pend–. 3.2.2. AN AFFIX is a morpheme (usually a bound morpheme) ‘that occurs before or behind a base’ [Stageberg, 1965: 87]. 3.2.2.1. Classified according to their POSITION in words, affixes have three main subclasses: PREFIXES ‘occur before a base’ [Stageberg, 1965: 91] as in import, prefix, reconsider, unkind, understate, over-react, etc. SUFFIXES ‘occur after a base’ [Stageberg, 1965: 92] as in shrinkage, noisy, quickly, nails, dreamed, mouse-like, etc. INFIXES are inserted within words, e.g. the infix –um–in Tagalog, which shows that a verb is in the past tense: sulat (to write) Æ sumulat (wrote). Affixes may be added directly to bases or to constructions consisting of a base plus one or more (either free or bound) morphemes. Thus we have: work + –s = works worker + –s = workers workshop + –s = workshops 3.2.2.2. Classified according to their FUNCTION in words, affixes have two main subclasses: INFLECTIONAL AFFIXES, ‘which are always suffixes in English, perform a grammatical function; they are representatives of grammatical categories’. [Jackson, 1980: 53] The only eight inflectional suffixes in English are: 12  c the noun plural morpheme {–S1}: book–s, apple–s, box–es, etc. d the noun possessive morpheme {–S2}: man–‘s, girl–‘s, students–‘, Alice–‘s, etc. e the verb third person singular present tense morpheme {–S3}: walk–s, find–s, mix–es, etc. f the verb present participle morpheme {–ing1}: play–ing, typ(e)–ing, dig(g)–ing, etc. g the verb past simple morpheme {–D1}: flow–ed, work–ed, creat(e)–ed, drank, broke, thought, show–ed, etc. h the verb past participle morpheme{–D2}: flow–ed, work–ed, creat(e)–ed, drunk, broken, thought, show–n, etc. i the adjective or adverb comparative morpheme {–er1}: small–er, saf(e)–er, thinn–er, long–er, fast–er, hard–er, etc. j the adjective or adverb superlative morpheme {–est1}: small–est, saf(e)– est, thinn–est, long–est, fast–est, hard–est, etc. DERIVATIONAL AFFIXES, ‘which may be prefixes or suffixes in English, have a lexical function; they create new words out of existing words or morphemes by their addition’. [Jackson, 1980: 53] Derivational affixes may be of two kinds: c Class-changing derivational affixes change the word class of the word to which they are attached: –al added to nation makes an adjective out of a noun. d Class-maintaining derivational affixes do not change the word class of the word to which they are attached. Derivational prefixes are usually class-maintaining: re–mark, dis–enthrone, un–refined, etc. There is not usually more than one prefix in a word in English and from what was said in the previous paragraphs, it is clear that English prefixes are always derivational. There is never more than one inflectional suffix in English words and it always comes last. A number of derivational suffixes may, however, occur. Derivational suffixes need not close off a word; that is, after a derivational suffix one can sometimes add another derivational suffix and can frequently add an inflectional suffix. The relative order of morphemes in the English word is, then, as follows: 13  derivational prefix – base – derivational suffix(es) – inflectional suffix Generally speaking, bases are central and affixes are peripheral. In English, affixes are almost always bound morphemes and bases are nearly always free. 4. VARIATIONS OF MORPHEMES — ALLOMORPHS 4.1. DEFINITION: An allomorph is ‘any of the different forms of a morpheme’. [Richards, Platt & Weber, 1987: 9] E.g. In English, the inflectional noun plural morpheme {–S1} is often shown in writing by adding –(e)s to the end of a singular noun, e.g. cat /k`t/ → cats /k`ts/. Sometimes this morpheme is pronounced /–z/, e.g. dog /d49/ → dogs /d49z/, and sometimes it is pronounced /–Iz/, e.g. box /b4ks / → box /’b4ks1z/. It is believed that /–s/, /–z/, /–Iz/ are three allomorphs of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {–S1} because: c They are in complementary distribution: /–s / occurs only after the voiceless consonants /p, t, k, f, θ/; /–Iz / occurs only after the sibilant consonants /s, Z, ∫, 2, t∫, d2/; /–z/ occurs after voiced sounds, including all vowels and voiced consonants except /z/, /2/, and /d2/. d They all have the same meaning, either lexical or grammatical: /–s/, /–z/, /–Iz/ all refer to ‘plurality’ and all mean ‘more than one’. Thus, an allomorph can also be defined as a variant of a morpheme which occurs in a certain definable environment. And a morpheme is a group of two or more allomorphs which conform to certain, usually rather clearly definable, criteria of distribution and meaning. The concept of morphemes and allomorphs is one of the most basic in descriptive linguistics. Its importance both as a tool and as an insight into the operation of language can hardly be underestimated. 4.2. SELECTION OF ALLOMORPHS: The three allomorphs /–z/, /–s/ and /–Iz/ of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {–S1} are phonologically conditioned since each can occur only when a certain clearly defined condition occurs. In this case, the conditioning factor is the phonetic nature of their preceding phoneme: /–s/ occurs only after the voiceless consonants /p, t, k, f, θ/; /–Iz/ occurs only after the groove fricatives and 14 affricates /s, z, ∫, 2, t∫, d2/; and /–z/ occurs only after voiced sounds, except the three voiced sibilants /z, 2, d2/: cat /k`t/ + –s /–s/ → cats /k`ts/ voiceless dog /d49/ + –s /–z/ → dogs /d49z/ voiced box /b4ks/ + –es /–1z / → box /’b4ks1z/ sibilant We may, therefore, say that /–s/, /–Iz/, and /–z/ are three phonologically conditioned allomorphs of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {–S1}. This means that, if we understand the facts of distribution, we can accurately predict which of the three will occur in any place where any one of them could occur. The selection of allomorphs may also be morphologically conditioned. In this case, the selection is determined by the specific morpheme or morphemes forming the context, rather than by any phonologic feature: the plural of ox /4ks/ is oxen /‘4ks6n/; /–6n/ is a morphologically conditioned allomorph of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {–S1} which is used with this stem /4ks/: ox /4ks/ + –en /−6n/ → oxen /‘4ks6n/ sibilant If a morpheme has numerous allomorphs, as many do, it is awkward to have a list of all of them every time the morpheme is mentioned. Instead, it is desirable to have a single symbol to indicate a morpheme, comprehending all the variant forms in which it can appear. For this purpose we use braces {}. The braces {} indicate a morphemic representative in which one arbitrarily selected symbol is used to represent each morpheme and comprehend all its allomorphs. It does not directly give any information about pronunciation. For instance, {–S1} can be used to refer to the inflectional noun plural morpheme and all of its allomorphs. 4.3. TYPES OF ALLOMORPHS c ADDITIVE ALLOMORPHS: To signify some difference in meaning, something is added to a word. For example, the past tense form of most English verbs is formed by adding the 15 suffix –ed which can be pronounced as either /–t/, or /–d/ or /–Id/: ask + –ed /a:sk/ + /–t/, liv(e) + –ed /lIv/ + /–d/, need + –ed /ni:d/ + /–Id/. d REPLACIVE ALLOMORPHS: To signify some difference in meaning, a sound is used to replace another sound in a word. For example, the /1/ in drink is replaced by the /æ/ in drank to signal the simple past. This is symbolized as follows: /dr`7k/ = /dr17k/ + / 1 → ` /. e SUBTRACTIVE ALLOMORPHS: To signify some difference in meaning, something is deleted from a word. For example, the letter a is deleted from zopa to signal that this Russian noun is in the plural form of the possessive case. f SUPPLETIVE ALLOMORPHS: To signify some difference in meaning, there is a complete change in the shape of a word. For example, go + the suppletive allomorph of {–D1} = went; be + the suppletive allomorph of {–S3} = is; bad + the suppletive allomorph of {–er1} = worse; good + the suppletive allomorph of {–est1} = best. g THE ZERO ALLOMORPH: There is no change in the shape of a word though some difference in meaning is identified. For example, the past tense form of hurt is formed by adding the zero allomorph of {–D1} to this word. EXERCISES A. THE EXERCISES OF MORPHEMES EXERCISE 1: Identify the number of the morphemes in each of the given words. Complete the table given below. 1 play 1 11 keeper 2 replay 2 (re– and play) 12 able 3 date 13 unable 4 antedate 14 mahogany 1 5 hygiene 15 rain 6 weak 16 rainy 16  7 weaken 17 cheap 8 man 18 cheaply 2 (cheap and –ly) 9 manly 19 cheaper 10 keep 20 honest EXERCISE 2: Identify the bound morpheme(s) in of each of the given words. Complete the table given below. 1 speaker –er 6 delivery 2 kingdom 7 intervene inter–, –vene 3 phonemic 8 revise 4 idolize 9 dreamed 5 selective 10 undone EXERCISE 3: Underline the base in each of the given words. Complete the table given below. 1 womanly 6 lighten 11 unlikely 2 endear 7 enlighten 12 pre-war 3 failure 8 friendship 13 subway 4 famous 9 befriend 14 falsify 5 infamous 10 Bostonian 15 unenlivened EXERCISE 4: Identify the meaning of the affix in of each of the given words. Complete the table given below. 1 antedate The prefix ante– means ‘before’. 2 replay 3 manly 4 keeper The suffix –er means ‘a person who …’. 5 unable 6 rainy 7 cheapest 8 subway 9 import 10 maltreat 17  EXERCISE 5: Identify the meaning of the bound base in the given sets of words. Complete the table given below. audience, audible, audition 1 The bound base audi– means ‘hear’. and auditorium suicide, patricide, matricide The bound base –cide means ‘killing’. 2 and infanticide oral, orate, oration, oracle 3 and oratory aquaplane, aquarium, 4 aquatic and aquaduct mortuary, moribund, mortal 5 and immortal corporation, corporeal, 6 corps and corpse tenable, tenant, tenure and 7 tenacious pendulum, suspender, 8 pendant and impending manuscript, manacle, 9 manual and manicure eject, inject, inject, reject 10 and projectile NOTES: 1. The bound base audi– means ‘hear’. - audible /‘0:d6bl/ adj that can be heard clearly: Her voice is scarcely audible above the noise of the wind. - audibility /,0:d6‘b1l6t1/ n [U] capability of being heard clearly. - audition /0:‘d1~n/ n [C] trial hearing of a person who wants to perform as an actor, a singer, a musician, etc.: I’m going to the audition but I don’t expect I’ll get a part. - audition v 1. [I] take part in an audition: Which part are you auditioning for? 2. [Tn] give an audition to sb: None of the actresses we auditioned is suitable. 18  - auditory /‘0:d6tr1/ adj of or concerned with hearing: the auditory nerve. - auditorium /,0:d1‘t0:r16m/ n (pl~s) part of a theatre, concert hall, etc. in which an audience sits. 2. The bound base –cide means ‘killing’. - suicide /‘sju:sa1d/ n 1. [U] killing oneself intentionally: to commit suicide; 2. [C] act of this: There have been three suicides this week. - patricide /‘p`tr1sa1d/ n 1. [U, C] (act of) killing one’s own father: to commit patricide; 2. [C] person who guilty of this. - matricide /‘m`tr1sa1d/ n 1. [C, U] (act of) killing one’s own mother: to commit matricide; 2. [C] person who does this. - infanticide /1n‘f`nt1sa1d/ n 1. [U] crime of killing an infant: to commit infanticide; 2. [C] person who kills an infant. 3. The bound base ora– means ‘mouth’ or ‘speak’. - oration /4‘re1~n/ n [C] formal speech made on a public occasion esp as part of a ceremony: a funeral oration. - oracle /‘4r6kl/ n [C] priest(ess) giving the answers: to consult the oracle. - oratory /‘4r6tr1/ n [U] (art of) public speaking, esp when used skilfully to affect an audience: Some politicians are famous for their oratory. - orator /‘4r6t6/ n (fml) (a) person who makes formal speeches in public; (b) person who is good at public speaking. 4. The bound base aqua– or aque–means ‘water’. - aquaplane /‘`kw6ple1n/ n [C] board on which a person stands while being towed across water by a ship or boat. 19  - aqueduct /‘`kw1d∧kt/ n [C] structure for carrying water across country, esp one built like a bridge over a valley or low ground. - aqueous /‘e1kw16s/ adj of or like water, produced by water: chemicals dissolved in an aqueous solution. - aquarium /6‘kwe6r16m/ n [C] (building containing an) artificial pond or glass where live fish and other water creatures and plants are kept. - aquatic /6‘kw`t1k/ adj [usu attrib] 1. (of plants, animals, etc.) growing or living in or near water: Many forms of aquatic life inhabit ponds. 2. (of sports) taking place on or in water: Swimming and water-skiing are both aquatic sports. 5. The bound base mor(t)– means ‘death’ or ‘dead’. - mortuary /‘m0:t~6r1/ n [C] room or building (e.g. part of a hospital) in which dead bodies are kept before being buried or cremated. adj [attrib] (fml) of death or burial: mortuary rites. - mortal adj that must be die; fatal; causing death: a mortal wound/ injury. n [C] human being: ordinary mortals. - immortal /‘m0:tl/ adj living for ever, that will not be dead. n [C] immortal being, god. - moribund /‘m4r1b∧nd/ adj at the point of death; about to come to an end: a moribund civilization, industry or custom. 6. The bound base corp– means either ‘the whole physical body of a human being or an animal’ or ‘group of people working or acting as a unit’. - corps /k0:(r)/ n (pl unchanged /k0:(r)z/) [CGp] 1. (a) military force made up of two or more divisions: the 6th Army Corps (b) one of the technical branches of an army: the 20  Royal Army Medical Corps; 2. a group of people involved in a particular activity: the Diplomatic Corps, the press corps. - corpse /k0:ps/ n [C] dead body esp of a human being. - corporation /,k0:p6‘re1~n/ n [CGp] 1. group of people authorised to act as an individual, e.g. for business purposes. 2. group of people elected to govern a town; council. - corporeal /k0:‘p0:r16l/ adj of or for the body; material; bodily. 7. The bound base ten– means ‘hold’. - tenable (for…) adj [pred] (of an office or position) that can be held for a certain time: The lectureship is tenable for a period of three years. - tenant n [C] 1. person who pays rent to a landlord/ landlady for the use of a room, a piece of land, etc.; 2. person who occupies a particular building or piece of land but does not own it. - tenure /‘tenjυ6/ n [U] holding of an office, a piece of land or other property. - tenacious /te‘ne1~6s/ adj resolute; keeping a firm hold on property, principles, life, etc: She’s tenacious in defence of her rights. 8. The bound base pend– means ‘hang’. - pendulum /‘pendjυl6m/ n [C] weight hung on a cord from a fixed point so that it can swing freely. - pendant /‘pend6nt/ n [C] ornament that hangs from a chain worn round the neck. - suspender /s6s‘pend6(r)/ n 1. [C esp pl] (Brit) short elastic strap for holding up a sock or stocking by its top; 2. suspenders [pl] (US) = braces. - impending /1m‘pend17/ adj about to happen: his impending retirement, visit, arrival, departure, etc. 21 9. The bound base man– means ‘hand’. - manicure /‘m`n1kjυ6(r)/ n [U, C] treatment for the hands and finger nails: have a manicure once a week; do a course in manicure. - manuscript /‘m`njυskr1p/ n (abbr MS) 1. thing written by hand: [attrib] a manuscript copy of a typed letter; 2. author’s written or typed work which has not been printed yet: submit a manuscript to an editor. - manacle /‘m`n6kl/ n (usu pl) one of a pair of chains or metal bands for binding the hands or feet. - manual /‘m`nυj6l/ adj done with or controlled by the hands: manual labor; n [C] keyboard of an organ, played with the hands. 10. The bound base ject– means ‘throw’ or ‘shoot’. 10.1. The prefix e− means ‘out(ward)’: - eject (from sth) v 1. [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sb/sth (from sth) (fml) force sb/sth out, expel sb/sth: The noisy youths were ejected from the cenima; 2 [Tn] send (sth) out, usu violently or suddenly: lava ejected from a volcano; 3 [I, Ipr] ∼ (from sth) be thrown quickly from an aircraft in an emergency, so that one can descend by parachute: As the plane fell quickly toward the ground, the pilot had to eject. 10.2. The prefix in− means ‘in(ward)’ or ‘into’: - inject v [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sth (into sb/sth); ∼ sb/sth (with sth) force (a drug or other liquid) into sb/sth with a syringe or similar implement: inject peniciline into sb’s arm, leg, etc. 10.3. The prefix pro− means ‘forward’: - project v 1. [I, Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sth (into sth); send or throw sth outward or forward: an apparatus to project missiles into space. 22  - projectile /pr6‘d2ekta1l/ n [C] object to be shot forward, esp from a gun; adj 1. that can be sent forward through the air, water: projectile missiles; 2. that can send objects: projectile force. 10.4. The prefix re− means ‘back(ward)’: - reject v 1. [Tn] refuse to accept (sb/sth): He rejected my job; 2. [Tn] put (sth) aside, throw (sth) away as not to be used, chosen, done, etc: reject over-ripe fruit. EXERCISE 6: Identify the meaning of the bound base in each of the given words and then give as many words with the same bound base as you can. Complete the table given below. revise devise, visible, visionary, (tele)vision, 1 –vise = ‘see’ visibility, (audio-)visual, supervise, etc. dictate, dictator, dictation, diction, dictum, contradict 2 –dict = ‘say’ contradict, contradiction, contradictory, contradictorily, etc. 3 regress 4 intervene 5 recur 6 inspect 7 oppose 8 rodent 23  9 portable 10 rupture 11 annual 12 bigamy NOTES: 1. The bound base –vise/ vis– means ‘see’. - revise v [Tn] re-examine sth in order to improve or correct it: revise a manuscript before publication. - devise v [Tn] think out (a plan, a system, a tool, etc); invent: devise a scheme for redeveloping the city center. - vision n [U] power of seeing, sight: have a perfect vision, poor, blurred, etc. vision. - visionary adj having or showing foresight or wisdom: visionary leaders, writers, paintings, ideals, etc. - visible adj ∼ (to sb/sth) that can be seen, in sight: The hills were barely visible through the mist. - visibility n [U] fact or state of being seen. - visual adj concerned with or used in seeing: visual images, effects, etc. - audio-visual adj using both sight and sound: audio- visual centers. 2. The bound base –dict/ dict– means ‘say’. - contradict /,k4ntr6‘d1kt/ v 1. [I, Tn] say sth that conflicts with (sth said or written) by (sb): That is 24  true but don’t you dare contradict (me)?; 2. [Tn] (of facts, evidence, etc) be contrary to sth; conflict with: The two statements contradict each other. - dictate sth v [I, Ipr, Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ (sth) to (sb) say or read aloud (words to be typed, written down or recorded on tape): The teacher dictate a letter the class. - diction n [U] style or manner of speaking or (sometimes) writing: Clarity of diction is visual for a public speaker. - dictum n (pl ∼s or –ta /–t6/) saying; maxim: ‘Knowledge is power’ is a well-known dictum. - dictionary n [C] book the lists and explains the words of a language: an English dictionary. 3. The bound base –gress means ‘go’. - regress v [I, Ipr] ∼ (sth) (fml) return to/ cause (sth) to go back to an earlier or more primitive state or form. - regressive adj making a continuous backward movement. - regression n [U] moving backward. - progress /’pr6υgres/n [U] onward or forward movement: The walkers were making slow progress up the rocky path. - progress /pr6’gres/ v [I] cause (sth) to move forward: The work is progressing steadily. - progressive /pr6’gres1v/ adj making a continuous forward movement: a progressive step. - progression /pr6’gre∫n/n [U] ∼ (from sth) ∼ (to sth) moving forward, developing. - egress /’1: gres/ n 1. [U] (law) (right of) going out; 2. [C] (dated fml) way out, exit: a means of egress. 25  - ingress /’17gres/ n [U] (fml) going in; (right of) entrance: a means of ingress 4. The bound base –vene means ‘come’. - intervene /,1nt6’vi:n/ v [I] come between others in time: during the years that intervene. - intervening adj coming between: when she came back, she found that much had changed in the intervening years. - convene /k6n’vi:n/ v 1. [Tn] summon (people) to come together: convene the members; 2. [I] come together (for a meeting, etc): The tribunal will convene tomorrow. - contravene /,k4ntr6’vi:n/ v [Tn] act or be contrary to (a law, etc), break (a law, etc): You are contravening the regulations. - supervene /,sju:p6’vi:n/ v [I] (fml) occur as an interruption or change: She was working well until illness supervened. 5. The bound base –cur means ‘run’. - recur /r1‘k3:(r)/ v [I] occur again, happen repeatedly: a recurring problem, error, illness. - recurrence /r1‘k3:r6ns/ n [C, N] (instance of) recurring; repetition: the recurrence of an illness, problem, error. - current /‘k∧r6nt/ adj happening now, of the present time: current issues, problems, prices. - current /‘k∧r6nt/ n [C] movement of water, air, etc flowing in a certain direction: - currency /‘k∧r6ns1/ n [U, C] money system in use in a country: gold, paper currency; trading in foreign currencies; a strong currency. 6. The bound base –spect means ‘look’. - inspect /in‘spekt/ v [Tn] examine (sth) closely: The customs officer inspected my passport suspiciously. 26  - spectacles /‘spekt6klz/ n [pl] (usu fml) specs = glasses = a pair of lenses in a frame used to help a person eyesight. - spectacle n [C] impressive, remarkable or interesting sight: The sunrise seen from high in the mountains was a tremendous spectacle. - prospect /‘pr4spekt/ n [C] 1. (dated) wide view of a landscape: a magnificent prospect of mountain peaks and lakes; 2. picture in the mind or imagination, esp. of a future event: She viewed the prospect of a week alone in the house without much enthusiasm. - prospect /pr6‘spekt/ v [I, Ipr] ∼ (for sth) search for mineral, oil, etc: a licence to prospect in the northern territory; The company are prospecting for gold in that area. - perspective /p6‘spekt1v/ n [C] view, esp. one stretching into the distance: get a perspective of the whole valley. - prospectus /pr4‘spekt6s/ n [C] printed document, leaflet, etc. giving details of and advertising sth: prospectus from several universities. 7. The bound base –pose means ‘place’ or ‘put’. - oppose v [Tn.pr] ∼ sth to/ against sth put forward as a contrast or opposite to sth else: Do not oppose your will against mine. - depose v [Tn] = dethrone = remove a ruler, a king, etc from power. - propose v [Tn] put forward sth for consideration: The committee proposed that new legislation should be drafted. - deposit v [Tn] put money into a bank, esp to earn interest: The cheque was only deposited yesterday, so it hasn’t been cleared yet. 27  - impose v [Tn] place (sth unwelcome or unpleasant) on sb/sth: impose restriction, limitations, restraints, etc (on trade). 8. The bound base –rod/ rod– means ‘gnaw’. - rodent /‘r6υdnt/ n [C] animal which gnaws things with strong teeth. - erode v [Tn esp passive] (of acids, rain, wind, etc) destroy or wear (sth) away gradually: Metals are eroded by acids. - erosion n [U] process of eroding or being eroded: the erosion of the coastline by the sea. - erosive adj having a tendency to be eroded. 9. The bound base –port/ port– means ‘carry’. - portable adj that can be carried by hand: a portable television set. - deport /d1‘p0:t/ v [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sb (from …) legally force (a foreigner, criminal, etc) to leave a country: He was convicted of drug offences and deported. - transport v [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sb/sth (from …) (to …) carry or take sth/sb from one place to another in a vehicle: transport goods by lorry. - portage n [U] (cost of) carrying goods. 10. The bound base –rupt/ rupt– means ‘break’. - rupture n [U, C] (fml) (instance of) breaking apart: the rupture of a blood-vessel, seed-pod, membrane. - erupt v [I] (of a volcano) break out: This volcano has erupted twice this year. - abrupt adj (of speech) not smooth, disconnected, disjoined: short and abrupt sentences. - corrupt adj (of languages, texts, etc) containing errors or changes: a corrupt manuscript. 28  - interrupt v [Tn] break the continuity of sth temporarily: Trade between the two countries was interrupted by the war. 11. The bound base ann– means ‘year’. - annual adj yearly. - annuity /6‘nju:6t1/ n [C] fixed sum of money paid to sb yearly. - annuitant /6‘nju:6t6nt/ n [C] person who receives an annuity. - anniversary n [C] yearly return of the date of an event; celebration of this. 12. The bound base –gamy means ‘marriage’. - bigamy / ‘b1g6m1/ n [U] custom of having two wives or husbands living. - polygamy /p6‘l1g6m1/ n [U] custom of having more than one wife at the same time. EXERCISE 7: Which of the following items is an English word? Support your choice? (1) ationizealnationde (ation–ize–al–nation–de) (2) alizedeationnation (al–ize–de–ation–nation) (3) denationalization (de–nation–al–ize–ation) ANSWER: Among the three items mentioned above, only (3) is an English word. The order of morphemes in English words is: derivational prefix − base − derivational suffix(es) − inflectional suffix Analysing (3) we find out that the following morphemes are in correct order: ‘de−’ is a prefix meaning ‘doing the opposite of’ ‘nation’ is the free base, which is a noun. ‘−al’ is a derivational class-changing adjective-forming suffix ‘−ize’ is a derivational class-changing verb-forming suffix ‘−ation’ is a derivational class-changing noun-forming suffix This morphemic analysis proves that (3) is an English word. The items numbered (1) and (2) are not because their constituents are not arranged in the above-mentioned order. The arrangements of the constituents in (1) and (2) 29 break all the rules concerning the internal stability and uninterruptability of English words. In other words, it is impossible to divide English words by the insertion of any other elements. Also, English word formation does not enable us to move a certain morpheme in a word to any position we like. In conclusion, our conscious knowledge of the English language allows us to identify (3), not (1) or (2), as an English word. B. THE EXERCISES OF ALLOMORPHS EXERCISE 8: Explain why ‘a’ and ‘an’ are two allomorphs of the same morpheme. ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ EXERCISE 9: Identify the allomorphs of the inflectional verb past simple morpheme {−D1} in the verb ‘be’. How are they conditioned? ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ EXERCISE 10: What are homophones? Give examples. Do they belong to the same morpheme? ANSWER: c Homophones are commonly used to refer to words which sound alike but have different meanings. Homophones may have different written forms: the verb mete (in mete sth out meaning ‘give or administer punishment, rewards, etc.’), the verb meet (‘come face to face with sb’) and the noun meat (‘flesh of animals, esp. mammals, used as food’) are all pronounced as /mi:t/; the second person pronoun you and the noun ewe (‘female sheep’) are both pronounced as /ju:/; etc. Homophones may have the same written form: the adverb too1 (‘more than should be’) and the adverb too2 (‘also’) are both pronounced as /tu:/; the noun 30 bear (‘large heavy animal with thick fur’), the verb bear1 (‘give birth to’) and the verb bear2 (‘tolerate’) are all pronounced as /be6(r)/; etc. d Homophones may also be allomorphs of different morphemes. Compare the allomorph /−z/ of the noun plural inflectional suffix {−S1} like in those frogs (1) with that of the noun possessive inflectional suffix {−S2} like in John’s book (2) and with that of the verb inflectional suffix {−S3} like in It feels good (3). The two above illustrations show that homophones can never belong to the same morpheme. EXERCISE 11: Identify the following homophones and try to look for a few more appropriate examples to illustrate their distinction. (1)a. The inflectional verb past participle morpheme {−D2}: the departed guests, edited manuscripts. (1)b. The derivational class-changing adjective-forming morpheme {−D3}: a very devoted wife; a rather neglected girl; he was even more excited than I (was). (2)a. The inflectional verb present participle morpheme {−ing1}: I saw a house burning; I saw a burning house. (2)b. The derivational class-changing noun-forming morpheme {−ing2}: droppings (n., pl) = excrement of birds or animals; findings (n., pl) = things that are discovered as the result of an (official) inquiry; He attended the meeting; I make my living by teaching. (2)c. The derivational class-changing adjective-forming morpheme {−ing3}: a very exciting film; you can’t expect a more charming companion than he. (3)a. The derivational class-changing adverb-forming morpheme {−ly1}: complete (adj.) + −ly → completely (adv.); happy (adj.) + −ly → happily (adv.). (3)b. The derivational class-changing adjective-forming morpheme {−ly2}: coward (n.) + −ly → cowardly (adj.); gentleman (n.) + −ly → gentlemanly (adj.). (4)a. The inflectional adjective comparative morpheme {−er1}: tall (positive adj.) + −er → taller (comparative adj.); happy (positive adj.) + −er → happier (comparative adj.). 31  (4)b. The derivational class-changing noun-forming morpheme {−er2}: read (verb) + −er → reader (noun); teach (verb) + −er → teacher (noun). (4)c. The derivational class-changing verb-forming morpheme {−er3}: chat (noun) + −er → chatter (verb); wit (noun) + −er → witter (verb). NOTES: chat /t∫`t/ n [C, U] friendly informal conversation: I had a long chat with her (about her job); That’s enough chat — get back to work. chatter /‘t∫`t6(r)/ v [I, Ipr, Ip] (away/on) (about sth) talk quickly, continuously or foolishly about unimportant matters: Do stop chattering on about the weather while I’m trying to read. wit /w1t/ n [U] ability to combine words, ideas, etc. so as to produce a clever type of humor: I admire her for her wit; [C] person who has or is famous for this, witty person: a well-known wit. witter /‘w1t6(r)/ v [I, Ipr, Ip] (on) (about sth) (infml, usu derog) speak in a lenthy and annoying way about sth unimportant: What are you wittering (on) about? EXERCISE 12: Give the morphemic structure of each of the following words. Identify the allomorph of the inflectional suffix in each word. How are the allomorphs involved conditioned? (morphologically or phonologically?) 1. ox → oxen /‘4ks6n/ = /4ks/ + /−6n/ /‘4ksn/ = /4ks/ + /−n/ /−6n/ or /−n/ is a morphologically conditioned additive allomorph of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {−S1}. 2. brother → brethren /‘bre5r6n/ = /‘br∧5r6 → ‘bre5r−/ + /−6n/ 32  child → children /‘t~1ldr6n/ = /t~a1ld → ‘t~1ldr−/ + /−6n/ /−6n/ is a morphologically conditioned additive allomorph of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {−S1}. It is added to a stem which has previously undergone some change in form: from /‘br∧56/ to /bre5r−/ or from /t~a1ld/ to /t~1ldr−/. In other words, /−6n/ is added to the allomorph /t~1ldr−/ of the morpheme {child} or the allomorph /bre5r−/ of the morpheme {brother}. 3. deer → deer /d16/ = /d16/ + / - / sheep → sheep /~i:p / = /~i:p/ + / - / /-/ is the morphologically conditioned zero allomorph of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {−S1}. The following group of names of edible animals, game animals, fish and birds also takes the zero allomorph of {−S1}: SWINE, BEAR, ANTELOPE, BASS, PIKE, CARP, PERCH, PICKEREL, QUAIL and GROUSE. 4. man → men /men/ = /m`n/ + / ` → e / goose → geese /gi:s/ = /gu:s/ + /u: → i:/ /` → e/ and /u:→ i:/ are two morphologically conditioned replacive allomorphs of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {−S1}. The following limited group of nouns also takes a replacive allomorph: WOMAN → WOMEN, TOOTH → TEETH, FOOT → FEET, LOUSE → LICE and MOUSE → MICE. 5. wolf → wolves /wυlvz/ = / wυlf → wυlv−/ + /−z/ calf → calves /ka:vz/ = / ka:f → ka:v−/ + /−z/ mouth → mouths /maυ5z/ = /maυθ → maυ5−/ + /−z/ path → paths /pa:5z/ = / pa:θ → pa:5−/ + /−z/ In the above cases, before the phonologically conditioned additive allomorph /−z/ of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {−S1} is added to change a singular noun to a plural noun, that singular noun has previously undergone some change in form: from /wυlf/ to /wυlv−/, from /ka:f/ to /ka:v−/, from /maυθ/ to /maυ5−/ or from /pa:θ/ to /pa:5−/. In other words, /−z/ is added to the second allomorph of the stem: /wυlv−/, /ka:v−/, /maυ5−/ and /pa:5−/. Some common nouns that may have the same analysis are: WIFE − WIVES, KNIFE− KNIVES, HALF − HALVES, SHELF − SHELVES, 33 SCARF − SCARVES, BATH − BATHS, LOAF − LOAVES, SELF − SELVES, OATH − OATHS, etc. 6. house → houses /haυz1z/ = /haυs → haυz−/ + /−1z/ /−Iz/ is a phonologically conditioned additive allomorph of {−S1} which occurs after one of the sibilant consonants /s/, /z/, /~/, /2/, /t~/, or /d2/. 7. hurt → hurt /h3:t/ = /h3:t/ + / - / put → put /pυt/ = /pυt/ + / - / /-/ is the morphologically conditioned zero allomorph of either the inflectional verb past simple morpheme {−D1} or the inflectional verb past participle morpheme {−D2}. 8. drink → drunk /dr∧7k/ = /dr17k / + /1 → ∧/ /1 → ∧/ is a morphologically conditioned replactive allomorph of the inflectional verb past participle morpheme {−D2}. 9. break → broken /‘br6υk6n/ = /bre1k → br6υk−/ + /−6n/ /‘br6υkn/ = /bre1k → br6υk−/ + /−n/ speak → spoken /‘sp6υk6n/ = /spi:k → sp6υk−/ + /−6n/ /‘sp6υkn/ = /spi:k → sp6υk−/ + /−n/ /−6n/ or /−n/ is a morphologically conditioned additive allomorph of the inflectional verb past participle morpheme {−D2}. It is added to a stem which has previously undergone some change in form from /bre1k/ to /br6υk−/ or from /spi:k/ to /sp6υk−/. 10. go → went /went/ = /g6υ/ + the morphologically conditioned suppletive allomorph of the inflectional verb past tense morpheme {−D1}. 11. wash → washes /‘w4~1z/ = /w4~/ + /−1z/ switch → switches /‘sw1t~1z/ = /sw1t~/ + /−1z/ /−1z/ is a phonologically conditioned additive allomorph of either the inflectional noun plural morpheme {−S1} or the inflectional verb present tense third person singular morpheme {−S3}. The allomorph /−1z/ only occurs after one of the sibilant consonants /s/, /z/, /~/, /2/, /t~/ or /d2/. 12. see → saw /s0:/ = /si:/ + /i: → 0:/ begin → began /b6‘9`n/ = /b6‘91n/ + /1 → `/ bite → bit /b1t/ = /ba1t/ + /a1 → 1/ give → gave /9e1v/ = /91v/ + /1 → e1/ 34  /i:→ 0:/, /1 → `/, /a1 → 1/ and /1 → e1/ are morphologically conditioned replacive allomorphs of the inflectional verb past tense morpheme {−D1}. EXERCISE 13: Write the base morpheme and its allomorphs in each case. How are the allomorphs conditioned? 1. house /haυs/, houses /haυz−/ + /−1z/ The base morpheme {house} has two morphologically conditioned allomorphs, /haυs/ and /haυz−/, according to context: /haυs/ occurs when there is no other morpheme occurring; /haυz−/ occurs in combination with /−1z/, a phonologically conditioned additive allomorph of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {−S1}. 2. child /t~a1ld/, children /‘t~1ldr−/ + /−6n/ The base morpheme {child} has two morphologically conditioned allomorphs, /t~a1ld/ and /‘t~1ldr−/, according to context: /t~a1ld/ occurs when there is no other morpheme occurring; /‘t~1ldr−/ occurs in combination with /−6n/, a morphologically conditioned additive allomorph of {−S1}. 3. strong /str47/, strength /stre7−/ + /−θ/ The base morpheme {strong} has two morphologically conditioned allomorphs, /str47/ and /stre7−/, according to context: /str47/ occurs when there is no other morpheme occurring; /stre7−/ occurs in combination with −th /−θ/, a derivational class-changing noun-forming suffix. wide /wa1d/ width /w1t−/ + /−θ/ broad /br4:d/ breadth /bret−/ + /−θ/ able /‘e1bl/ ability /6‘b1l−/ + /−6t1/ divine /d6‘va1n/ divinity /d6‘v1n−/ + /−6t1/ supreme /s6‘pri:m/ supremacy /s6‘prem6−/ + /−s1/ 4. atom /‘`t6m/, atomic /6‘t4m−/ + /−1k/ The base morpheme {atom} has two morphologically conditioned allomorphs, /‘`t6m/ and /6‘t4m−/, according to context: /‘`t∂m/ occurs when there is no other morpheme occurring; /6‘t4m−/ occurs in combination with −ic /−1k/, a derivational class-changing adjective-forming suffix. feast /fi:st/ festive /fest−/ + /−1v/ destroy /d6‘str01/ destructive /d6‘str∧kt −/ + /−1v/ offend /6‘fend/ offensive /6‘fens−/ + /−1v/ repeat /r6‘pi:t/ repetitive /r6‘pet6t−/ + /−1v/ 35  sympathy /‘s1mp6θ1/ sympathetic /,s1mp6‘θet−/ + /−1k/ energy /‘en6d21/ energetic /,en6‘d2et−/ + /−1k/ 5. do /du:/, does /d∧−/ + /−z/ The base morpheme {do} has two morphologically conditioned allomorphs, /du:/ and /d∧−/, according to context: /du:/ occurs when there is no other morpheme occurring; /d∧−/ occurs in combination with /−z/, a phonologically conditioned additive allomorph of the inflectional verb present tense third person singular morpheme {−S3}. 6. have /h`v/, has /h`−/ + /−z/ The base morpheme {have} has two morphologically conditioned allomorphs, /h`v/ and /h`−/, according to context: /h`v/ occurs when there is no other morpheme occurring; /h`−/ occurs in combination with /−z/, a phonologically conditioned additive allomorph of the inflectional verb present tense third person singular morpheme {−S3}. 7. fame /‘fe1m/ infamous /‘1nf6m6s/ famous /‘fe1m/ + /−6s/ infamy /‘1nf6m1/ The base morpheme {fame} has two phonologically conditioned allomorphs, /feIm/ and /−f6m/, according to context: /feIm/ occurs in primarily stressed syllables; /−f6m−/ occurs in unstressed syllables. EXTRA READING The Allomorphs of the Inflectional Noun Plural Morpheme {−S1} 1. Three phonologically conditioned (= regular) additive allomorphs: 1.1. /−s/ occurs after the voiceless consonants /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/ and /θ/: cat → cats /k`ts/ = /k`t/ + /−s/ 1.2. /−1z/ occurs after the sibilant consonants /s/, /z/, /~/, /2/, /t~/ and /d2/: class → classes /‘kla:s1z/ = /kla:s/ + /−1z/ 1.3. /−z/ occurs after all vowels, which are always voiced, and other voiced consonants except /z/, /2/, and /d2/: chair → chairs /t~e6z/ = /t~e6/ + /−z/ arm → arms /a:mz/ = /a:m/ + /−z/ 36 2. The phonologically conditioned (= regular) additive allomorph /−z/ is added to a stem that has previously undergone some change in form (with consonant change): calf → calves /ka:vz / = /ka:f/ + /f → v/ + /−z/ bath → baths /ba:5z/ = /ba:θ/ + /θ → 5/ + /−z/ 3. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) zero allomorph /-/: sheep → sheep /~i:p/ = /~i:p/ + / - / 4. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) replacive allomorph (with vowel change): foot → feet /fi:t/ = /fυt/ + /υ → i:/ tooth → teeth /ti:θ/ = /tu:θ/ + /u: → i:/ man → men /men/ = /m`n/ + /` → e/ woman → women /‘w1m1n/ = /‘wυm6n/ + /υ → 1/ and /6 → 1/ 5. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) additive allomorph: 5.1. /−6n/ is simply added to the stem: ox → oxen /‘4ks6n/ = /4ks/ + /−6n/ 5.2. /−6n/ is added to the stem that has previously undergone some change in form: child → children /‘t~1ldr6n/ = /t~a1ld → ‘t~1ldr−/ + /−6n/ brother → brethren /‘bre5r6n/ = /‘br∧5r6 → ‘bre5r−/ + /−6n/ The Allomorphs of the Inflectional Verb Past Simple Morpheme {−D1} 1. Three phonologically conditioned (= regular) additive allomorphs: 1.1. /−1d/ occurs after the alveolar oral stop /t/ or /d/: want → wanted /‘w4nt1d/ = / w4nt/ + /−1d/ need → needed /‘ni:d1d/ = /ni:d/ + /−1d/ 1.2. /−t/ occurs after other voiceless sounds: fix → fixed /f1kst/ = /f1ks/ + /−t/ wash → washed /‘w4~t/ = /w4~/ + /−t/ switch → switched /‘sw1t~t/ = /sw1t~/ + /−t/ 1.3. /−d/ occurs after other voiced sounds: pull → pulled /pυld/ = /pυl/ + /−d/ change → changed /t~e1nd2d/ = /t~e1nd2/ + /−d/ fire → fired /fa16d/ = /fa16/ + /−d/ 37  show → showed /~6υd/ = /~6υ/+ /−d/ 2. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) zero allomorph /-/: hurt → hurt /h3:t/ = /h3:t/ + /-/ put → put /pυt/ = /pυt/ + /-/ beat → beat /bi:t/ = /bi:t/ + /-/ 3. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) additive allomorph: dwell → dwelt /dwelt/ = /dwel/ + /−t/ burn → burnt /b3:nt/ = /b3:nt/ + /−t/ 4. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) replacive allomorph 4.1. with vowel change: tear → tore /t0:/ = /te6/ + /e6 → 0:/ find → found /faυnd/ = /fa1nd/ + /a1 → aυ/ run → ran /r`n/ = /r∧n/ + /∧ → `/ ring → rang /r`7/ = /r17/ + /1 → `/ choose → chose /t~6υz/ = /t~u:z/ + /u: → 6υ/ 4.2. with consonant change: send → sent /sent/ = /send/ + /d → t/ build → built /bju:lt/ = /bju:ld/ + /d → t/ 4.3. with both vowel and consonant change: catch → caught /k0:t/ = /k`t~/ + /` → 0:/ and /t~ → t/ bring → brought /br0:t/ = /br17/ + /1 → 0:/ and /7 → t/ seek → sought /s0:t/ = /si:k/ + /i: → 0:/ and /k → t/ 5. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) replacive allomorph + the morphologically conditioned (= irregular) additive allomorph 5.1. with vowel change: tell → told /t6υld/ = /tel/ + /e → 6υ/ + /−d/ do → did /d1d/ = /du:/ + /u: → 1/ + /−d/ hear → heard /h3:d/ = /h16/ + /16 → 3:/ + /−d/ buy → bought /b0:t/ = /ba1/ + /a1 → 0:/ + /−t/ feel → felt /felt/ = /fi:l/ + /i: → e/ + /−t/ 5.2. with both vowel and consonant change: leave → left /left/ = /li:v/ + /i: → e/ and /v → f/ + /−t/ 6. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) suppletive allomorph: go /96υ/ + the suppletive allomorph of {−D1} = went /went/ be /bi:/ + the suppletive allomorph of {−D1} = was /w4z/ or were /w3:/ The Allomorphs of the Inflectional Verb Past Participle Morpheme {−D2} 38 1. Three phonologically conditioned (= regular) additive allomorphs: /−1d/, /−t/ and /−d/. (See ‘three phonologically conditioned additive allomorphs of {−D1}’.) 2. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) zero allomorph / - /: hurt → hurt /h3:t/ = /h3:t/ + / - / put → put /pυt/ = /pυt/ + / - / run → run /r∧n/ = /r∧n/ + / - / 3. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) additive allomorph: dwell → dwelt /dwelt/ = /dwel/ + /−t/ be → been /bi:n/ = /bi:/ + /−n/ show → shown /~6υn/ = /~6υ/ + /−n/ beat → beaten /bi:tn/ = /bi:t/ + /−n/ 4. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) replacive allomorph: 4.1. with vowel change: find → found /faυnd/ = /fa1nd/ + /a1 → aυ/ read → read /red/ = /ri:d/ + /i: → e/ ring → rung /r∧7/ = /r17/ + /1 → ∧/ 4.2. with consonant change: send → sent /sent/ = /send/ + /d → t/ build → built /bju:lt/ = /bju:ld/ + /d → t/ 4.3. with both vowel and consonant change: catch → caught /k0:t/ = /k`t~/ + /` → 0:/ and /t~ → t/ bring → brought /br0:t/ = /br17/ + /1 → 0:/ and /7 → t/ seek → sought /s0:t/ = /si:k/ + /i: → 0:/ and /k → t/ 5. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) replacive allomorph + the morphologically conditioned (= irregular) additive allomorph: 5.1. with vowel change: tell → told /t6υld/ = /tel/ + /e → 6υ/ + /−d/ hear → heard /h3:d/ = /h16/ + /16 → 3:/ + /−d/ buy → bought /b0:t/ = /ba1/ + /a1 → 0:/ + /−t/ feel → felt /felt/ = /fi:l/ + /i: → e/ + /−t/ do → done /d∧n/ = /du:/ + /u: → ∧/ + /−n/ tear → torn /t0:n/ = /te6/ + /e6 → 0:/ + /−n/ go → gone /94n/ = /96υ/ + /6υ → 4/ + /−n/ 39  choose → chosen /‘t~6υzn/ = /t~u:z/ + /u: → 6υ/ + /−n/ 5.2. with both vowel and consonant change: leave → left /left/ = /li:v/ + /i: → e/ and /v → f/ + /−t/ NOTES: c The −ed /−t/ in blessed /blest/ and the −ed /−d/ in burned /b3:nd/ are two phonologically conditioned additive allomorph of either {−D1} or{−D2}. bless → blessed /blest/ → blessed /blest/ burn → burned /b3:nd/ → burned /b3:nd/ d The −t /−t/ in blest /blest/ and in burnt /b3:nt/ represents a morphologically conditioned additive allomorph of either {−D1} or{−D2}. bless → blest /blest/ → blest /blest/ burn → burnt /b3:nt/ → burnt /b3:nt/ 40