Anatomy and Physiology 12 Unit 1 Learning Guide PDF

Anatomy and Physiology 12 Unit 1 ~ Learning Guide Name:________________ Jonathan INSTRUCTIONS Complete the following notes and questions as you work through the related lessons. You ar...

Anatomy and Physiology 12 Unit 1 ~ Learning Guide Name:________________ Jonathan INSTRUCTIONS Complete the following notes and questions as you work through the related lessons. You are required to have this package completed BEFORE you write your unit test. Do your best and ask questions about anything that you don't understand BEFORE you write the unit test. 1.1 Introduction to Cell Compounds Homeostasis: ____________________________________________________ The internal environment (inside the body) remains relatively constant regardless of the conditions in the external environment. Examples: 1. Blood Glucose Concentration remains about 0.01% 2. PH of blood is always near 7.4 (slightly basic) 3. Blood pressure in the brachial artery averages near 120/80 4. Blood temperature averages ~ 37°C 5. Pancreatic Juice (pH 8.5) neutralizes stomach acids so that food entering the small intestine is basic. 6. CO 2 concentration in our blood stimulates our breathing. Negative Feedback: Control centers in the Brain and other organs release hormones _that cause specific body reactions. Once normalcy is reached, the control center is NO LONGER stimulated. (This is why the process is called negative feedback ) Page 1 of 37 High body temp Nerve endings Hypothalamus Normal temp Sweating High Carbon Receptors Dioxide Medulla Oblangata Brain Normal Carbon Dioxide Breathing Page 2 of 37  The process by the body to become unstable. Positive Feedback: ____________________________________________________ Instead of achieving normalcy, ____________________________________________ The adaptive response further stimulates the regulatory center. An increasingly unstable situation results. _____________________________________________________________________ Stabilize Negative Feedback tends to _________________a system. Positive Feedback leads to _________________________. Instability Page 3 of 37  U1: INTRODUCTION 1. A woman is being tested for diabetes mellitus. Her blood glucose levels are measured and recorded over a period of time (data given below). Please graph the data and answer the associated questions. Graphing Tips:  the independent variable is always placed on the x-axis (in this case, time)  the dependent variable is always placed on the y-axis (in this case, blood glucose levels as they are dependent on the time)  each axis needs an informative title that includes units of measurement such as hours and mg/dL  the graph needs an informative title  each square on the graph must represent a consistent value such as 1 hour (x-axis) or 20 mg/dL (y-axis) Table 1. Blood Glucose Levels in Patient X over Time. Blood Glucose Time (h) Levels (mg/dL) 0 100 1 110 2 100 3 80 4 90 5 100 Blood glucose levels vs Time 120 100 80 Blood glucose levels (mg/dL) 60 40 20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Time (h) Figure 1. Blood Glucose Levels in Patient X over Time Page 4 of 37 a. The normal range for blood glucose levels is 70-110 mg/dl. Does Patient X always remain within the normal range? Yes, Patient X always remains within the normal range of blood glucose levels, with their highest rate 110 and lowest 80 mg/dL. b. Does Patient X have any apparent problems with glucose regulation? Why or why not? From the data presented, Patient X appears to not have any problems with glucose regulation. This is because their glucose levels remain in normal range through the 5 hours tested. c. Which type of feedback mechanism (positive or negative) is used to regulate blood glucose levels? Explain your reasoning. A negative feedback loop is used by the body to stabilize and maintain homeostasis. This is evident as whenever the levels of glucose present in the blood of Patient X reach the extremities of a typical range, the body responds within a few hours by returning the level to normalcy. Page 5 of 37 1.2 Water Because water is the substance that makes life possible on Earth as we know it, astronomers hope to find evidence of water on newly discovered planets orbiting distant stars. Life on Earth began in the water and evolved there for 3 billion years before spreading onto land. Terrestrial organisms are still tied to water. In fact, most cells are surrounded by water and cells themselves are about 70-95% water. Life as we know it, is based on the chemistry of organic molecules. To be "organic" a molecule must have a carbon atom in it. Eg. Vinegar (CH 3 CH 2 OH) is organic, whereas water (H 2 O) is not. The organic molecules in living things are easily grouped into four types of biochemicals. Understanding these four biochemicals is important and will be introduced later in this unit. So if it's not organic, why is water so incredibly important? What happens to the quality of life if the chemical conditions of living things change? In the formation of chemical compounds, organic or inorganic, atoms must bond together Electron configurations to form stable structures. In order to do this, the _______________ ____________ around the various nuclei in the compound must also be stable. This stability can be achieved through some degree of __________________ sharing electrons between the atoms. If the atoms share the electrons reasonably equally, their covalent bond association is termed _________________________. unequal sharing of electrons The alternative is a very _______________________________. ionic bond This is called an ____________ where it seems as though one atom actually _____________its gives away electrons to another atom. positive negative ions when they gain Neutral atoms become ______ ions when they lose electrons and _______ electrons. Page 6 of 37 In between these two extremes is what is termed _________________. polar covalent Polar covalent molecules have dipoles (regions with ______________________ slight positive and negative natures). A water molecule is an example of this kind of molecule. There is an unequal _______________________ sharing of electrons between the hydrogen ________ and oxygen _____ atoms within a water molecule. This unequal sharing of electrons results in a _______. dipole One end being the negative dipole (O) and the other being the positive dipole (H). Therefore a water molecule behaves as a mini-magnet opposite charges attracting and _________________ ___________ with ______________________ like charges repelling one another. Bipolarity causes water to have some degree of structure that extends beyond the individual molecules and cause a community water effect. Due to its polar nature water molecules are loosely attracted to ____________. one another The negative charge on the oxygen of one water molecule attracts the positively charged hydrogen of ________________________________ another water molecule some distance away weak bond to produce a ___________called a hydrogen bond ________________. Although hydrogen bonds are weak, the vast number of these bonds gives water its unique four neighbours properties. Each water molecule can form hydrogen bonds with up to ___________________. other surfaces This is also why water is attracted to ______________. opposite charges attract Remember ______________________. solutes dissolved in a liquid A solution is a mixture of one or more soluble substances, called _______, called the __________. solvent A sugar cube in a glass of water will eventually dissolve to form a uniform mixture of sugar and water. The dissolving agent is the solvent and the substance that is dissolved is the solute. In our example, water is the solvent and sugar the solute. Can you identify the solvent and solute in each of the following solutions? Example 1: 15 g baking soda and 100 ml of water? Solvent: water Solute: baking soda Example 2: Nail polish removed by acetone? Solvent: acetone Solute: nail polish Example 3: 1.00L ethylene glycol and 875 mL water? Solvent: water Solute: ethylene glycol Example 4: Chromium dissolved in hydrochloric acid? Solvent: hydrochloric acid Solute: chromium The Properties of Water: solvent 1) Water acts as a __________ and is able to dissolve many chemical substances especially other Page 7 of 37  _______________ polar molecules such as salt. Since blood is mainly water, the ability of water to dissolve _______ and transport substances ___________________ greatly aids in bringing about necessary _______________ chemical reactions in the body. Water is called the "__________________" universal solvent because it dissolves more substances than any other liquid. This is important to every living thing on earth. 2) ________________________ Moderates Climate (both internal and external climates). Water can absorb a great deal of heat while only rising in temperature a slight amount. Water also releases heat slowly. This property is referred to as a ____________________________. high heat of evaporation As a liquid evaporates the most energetic molecules are carried away leaving the lower kinetic energy molecules behind which ______________ cools the surface of the liquid that remains - _____________ evaporative cooling ______________. Internal example - Body systems are mainly water, therefore, bodies tend to stay at relatively constant temperatures despite external conditions. External example - Oceans keep surrounding land masses cool in summer and warmer in winter. Density of Water 3) Liquid water is unusual because it is ___________________ more dense than ice (very rare for compounds). Most materials __________ contract as they solidify. ________________. Water expands Therefore, ice forms on top of water insulating lower levels. This oddity has important consequences for life. If ice sank, eventually all ponds, lakes, and even oceans would freeze solid. During the summer, only the upper few inches of the ocean would thaw. Instead, the surface layer of ice insulates liquid water below, preventing it from freezing and allowing life to exist under the frozen surface. 4) Light penetrates well into bodies of water to the organisms below. This is important for all organisms that undergo ___________________. photosynthesis Water is Both Cohesive and Adhesive 5) Water molecules ___________________________. stick to each other and to other surfaces This keeps surfaces _________________. moist and lubricated _________________ Diffusion of gases occurs much more efficiently across moist surfaces. Cohesion (_________ sticking to __________) each other among water molecules plays a key role in the ___________________________ transport of water against gravity in plants. ________________ Surface tension is a measure of the force necessary to ____________ stretch or break the surface of a liquid and is related to ___________. cohesion Water has a __________________ greater surface tension than most other liquids because hydrogen bonds among surface water molecules resist stretching or breaking the surface. Water behaves as if covered by an invisible film. Some animals can stand, walk, or run on water without breaking the surface. Page 8 of 37 Adhesion (_______________________________) sticking to other kinds of molecules contributes too, as water adheres to the walls of the __________________. blood vessels **** Note: Focus on the properties of water that apply to the human body.**** What are four important functions of water in the human body? Dissolves many substances to be transported through the body. Example 1: _________________________________________________________ Example 2: Helps _________________________________________________________ to regulate the body's internal temperature (homeostasis). Example 3: Helps _________________________________________________________ to lubricate for ease of movement. Example - joints and esophagus. Example 4: Required _________________________________________________________ for hydrolytic reactions in the body. U2: WATER 1. Sketch a ball and stick diagram of a water molecule. Label the atoms and indicate the partial charges that exist in a water - O H H + + 2. What type of bonds are found between hydrogen and oxygen atoms within a single water molecule? Covalent bonds. 3. What type of bonds form between two or more water molecules? Hydrogen bonds. 4. Use a diagram with 5 water molecules to illustrate hydrogen bonding between water molecules (start with one molecule in the middle). How many water molecules can hydrogen bond with a single water molecule? = Oxygen (-) = Hydrogen (+) = Hydrogen Bond Page 9 of 37 5. List 3 everyday examples of the cohesive and/or adhesive properties of water. Strong surface tension allows critters to walk on water. Used to transport water against gravity in plants. Water adheres to walls of blood vessels. polar 6. Water is a __________molecule. dissolves Water ___________many substances (especially other __________molecules). polar This property makes water an excellent _________. solvent 7. Use several examples each to explain how water is essential to the human body with respect to the following properties: a. Water acts as a Solvent Blood is mainly water, so the ability for it to dissolve and transport substances greatly aids in bringing about necessary chemical reactions in the body. If water weren't a solvent, these reactions wouldn't occur in the body and we would not be able to maintain homeostasis. b. Water acts as a Temperature Moderator Water can absorb a great deal of high with very slight change in temperature. Because the body is primarily made up of water, we stay at relatively constant temperatures despite external conditions. This is crucial for us to maintain homeostasis. c. Water acts as a Lubricant and Transportation Facilitator Water molecules stick to each other and to other surfaces to keep them moist and lubricated. This serves to allow for greater movement of joints, oxygen, and generally things within the body. Cohesion and adhesion in water molecules is also key to allow it to transport against the flow of gravity. Because of these properties, especially adhesion, blood doesn't separate while moving through vessels. Page 10 of 37  8. Please indicate whether the statements below are true or false. Please correct any false statements. T / F a. Water molecules can attract other water molecules by hydrogen bonding. T / F b. Hydrogen bonds are stronger than ionic or covalent bonds. Hydrogen bonds are not as strong as ionic or covalent bonds. T / F c. The majority of our cellular reactions occur in water. T / F d. Large lakes and oceans tend to moderate local temperatures. T / F e. Water is an organic molecule. Water is not an organic molecule as it doesn't contain carbon 1.3 pH Organisms are sensitive to changes in pH (pH refers to the __________________________ potential Hydrogen Ion (H+) _________________________). concentration of a solution An acid is a substance that ___________________________ increases the hydrogen ion _________________ concentration in a solution. For example when hydrochloric acid is added to water, hydrochloric acid dissociates to form hydrogen ions and chloride ions: HCl —> H+ + Cl- The addition of H+ makes a solution ________________. more acidic A base is a substance that increases the __________________ hydroxide ion concentration in a solution. For example when sodium hydroxide is added to water, sodium hydroxide dissociates to form sodium ions and hydroxide ions: NaOH —> Na+ + OH- Page 11 of 37 Solution with more OH- than H+ are ____________________. basic solutions The pH scale is used to describe how acidic or basic (the opposite of acidic) a solution is. The pH scale, ranging from ________, 1 to 14 compresses the range of concentrations by employing logarithms. In other words every number on the pH scale is a ___________________. multiple of 10 pH = -log [H+] or [H+] = 10 -pH A pH of 7 is a ___________ neutral pH hydrogen ions where the concentration of ______________ = concentration of + - _________________. hydroxide ions [H ] = [OH ] A pH that ranges between 7 and 14 has more _____________ hydroxide ions than _____________ hydrogen ions making it a ____________. basic solution A pH that ranges between 1 and 7 has more ____________ hydrogen ions than ____________ hydroxide ions making it an acidic ___________. solution We can calculate the difference in hydrogen ion concentrations at different pH levels by ______________________________. multiplying or dividing by 10 For example a pH 6 has 10 times more H+ than at pH 7. A pH of 3 has 100 times more H+ than pH 5 and so on. Try the following pH comparisons: Example 1: pH of 12 has 0 times less H+ than a pH of 12 100000 times Example 2: pH of 6 has _____________more H+ than a pH of 11 [H+] and [OH-] The pH scale is just a comparison between the ____________________. Buffers Most ___________which enzymes are made of _________ protein and control the ______________in chemical reactions your body can only operate at certain ____________. pH levels If pH levels change too drastically these biochemicals denature (___________________) will __________ lose their shape and no longer function properly. Example: Blood must be at a pH close to 7.4 or else we may become ill. At the wrong pH the blood cannot transport O 2 + CO 2 as efficiently. As you can see then the chemical processes in the cell can be ____________________________ disrupted by changes to the H+ and OH- ______________________ concentrations away from their ____________________________. normal or optimum pH values Page 12 of 37 To maintain cellular pH values at a constant level, biological fluids have chemicals called ____________. buffers resist changes The function of Buffers is to "__________________" to the pH of a solution when __________ H+ or OH- is added to the solution. Buffers are chemicals or combinations of chemicals that are able to accept hydrogen ions from the solution when they are in excess keep pH levels constant. Buffers _________________ and ______________________ donate hydrogen ions when they have been depleted. Note: The buffer keeps pH constant despite adding more acid. Acids are molecules that dissociate to __________________. hydrogen ions In this respect water acts as a weak acid. ________ HCL on the other hand is a strong acid because it dissociates to a much greater extent. Systems with HCI in them have a lot of free H+ floating around. OH- ions Bases are molecules that __________________. Molecules like ________ NaOH are bases. Bases have a _______________ neutralizing effect on acids because the H+ ___ in an acidic environment will combine with ______ OH- from a base and form water and salt. Note: The first graph shows pH change without a buffer, while the second graph shows pH change with a buffer. U3: pH, ACIDS AND BASES 1. Please define the following terms a. acid Molecules that dissociate to release hydrogen ions b. base Molecules that release hydrogen ions Page 13 of 37  c. pH A scale ranging from 1 to 14 using logarithms to represent the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. d. buffer chemicals or combinations of chemicals used to keep pH levels constant, 2. Indicate whether the following pH values represent an acidic, basic or neutral solution. a. pH 0: acidic basic b. pH 12: c. pH 7: neutral d. pH 3: acidic 3. Hydrochloric acid (HCl), a strong acid, is added to a beaker of pure water: a. What is the pH of the pure water in the beaker before the acid is added? 7 b. How does the hydrogen ion concentration change after the acid is added? higher concentration of hydrogen ions within the solution c. What happens to the pH of the solution in the beaker as the acid is added? decreased 4. How much has the hydrogen ion concentration changed in a solution if its pH value goes from 6 to 4? Remember to indicate whether this change represents an increase or decrease in hydrogen ion concentration. 100 times greater 5. pH balance is very important to biological systems. a. Why? blood must maintain a pH of about 7.4 or issues will arise within the body such as lack of cohesiveness and adhesiveness which will modify the lubricant and transportation uses of the water. b. What prevents rapid or large changes in pH in biological systems? Buffers within the biological systems to maintain the pH. c. Give an example of where pH balance is important and regulated in a living organism. at the wrong pH balance, blood cannot transport O2 and CO2 as effectively Page 14 of 37 1.4 Introduction to Biological Molecules Carbon is the basic element for life. It is a non-metal that must bond with other non-metals to covalent bonds Covalent bonds become stable. When two non-metals bond together they form _____________. are formed when a pair of atoms shares electrons (______________________). covalent bonds are strong bonds Atoms will share electrons in order to complete the complement of electrons in their outermost electron shell. Carbon can share electrons with as many as _______________ 4 other atoms to form chains or rings. Drawing each bond in a molecule as two dots gets old very fast. To save time chemists usually a line depict a bond as ________ drawn from one atomic symbol to another. Such representations are called _________________ Lewis structures rather than Lewis electron dot structures. Rings can also form: ____________________________ Carbon rings or chains act as the skeleton for the unit molecules, which make up the life compounds. Examples: of life compounds are _________________________________________________. Proteins, Carbohydrates, Fats (Lipids), and Nucleic Acids Below is a carbon ring which is classified as a carbohydrate. Unit molecules join together to form larger molecules called ____________. Polymers Proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and nucleic acids are all polymers. To join the unit molecules (or building blocks) together, a __________________________. molecule of water must be removed. H is taken from 1 molecule and OH from the other molecule. This + - process is called dehydration ________________ synthesis and _______ energy is required. To help remember this chemical reaction, think of what is happening to you as you lose water - you dehydrate. The word synthesis means ____ to __________. make So we are making something by taking water away. What if instead of making larger molecules (__________) polymers from smaller units (____________) monomers our body needs to __________________________________? break down a polymer to its monomers To do this a molecule of water must be added. This process is called ______________ hydrolysis and _________________. energy is required Sometimes breaking words down will help you understand them. Hydro - _______________ refers to water and _______________________. lysis means to break apart U4: INTRODUCTION 1. List the 4 major classes of carbon-containing life molecules that will be studied in this unit and throughout the course? a. Proteins ______________________________ Page 15 of 37  Carbohydrates b. ______________________________ c. ______________________________ Fats (Lipids) d. Nucleic ______________________________ Acids 2. Define the following terms: a. monomer Small molecular structures which are he building blocks that react with one another to form polymers b. polymer Large molecules built up of several monomers c. dehydration synthesis Removing a hydrogen ion from one monomer and hydroxide ion from another. This forms water and a bond between the monomers. d. hydrolysis Water is added to a per-existing bond between monomers, separating them by adding an OH- to one side and H+ to the other. 1.5 Carbohydrates are sugar 1. Carbohydrates: _______________. We will look at ___________ 3 groups of carbohydrates; the ___________________ monosaccharides (mono - _______________), meaning one the disaccharides ___________ (di-_____________), meaning two and the _________________ polysaccharides (poly - ________________). meaning many The elements in all carbohydrates are: _______________________________. Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen The ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is always 2:1 and the empirical formula for carbohydrates is CH 2 O 1. Sugars: Provide us with ________________. monosaccharides short term energy We will start by looking at the ______________ of which there are two groups. There are 5 carbon sugars (pentoses) and the 6 carbon sugars (___________). hexose hexose For the purpose of this unit we are only concerned with the _____________ monosaccharides, but below are some examples of the pentose sugars. Note the 5 carbon rings. a) Monosaccharides: 5 or 6 carbon sugars (simple sugars) i) Pentoses: 5 carbon sugars Examples: Ribose, Deoxyribose (1 less oxygen than ribose) Page 16 of 37 BIOLOGY 12 RIBOSE (in RNA) DEOXYRIBOSE (in DNA) As chains. As rings. ii) Hexose = 6 carbon sugars: Note the six carbon rings (below) 3 examples that you need to know for this course are: _____________________________ glucose, fructose, and galactose C6H12O6 All have the formula ____________ , however if you examine their structural formulas, you will find the difference in the ______________________. organization of their atoms Looking at the 3 diagrams you will see that monosaccharides all 3 __________________ have the exact same number of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen atoms. The difference between the 3 ____________________ monosaccharides is the way these atoms are arranged. They are called _____________. isomers ThereCH2OH Are Three Ways To Represent the Structure of Glucose (draw them in below) CH2OH O H C H O H O H H H C OH H C OH OH OH C H OH OH C OH H OH For the purpose of this course there are 3 monosaccharides that you will need to know: 1. Glucose ____________ - you will hear a lot about glucose in later units as it is the main form of sugar in the blood. 2. ____________ Fructose - the sweetest monosaccharide found in _________. fruits 3. Galactose ____________ - one of the building blocks oflactose __________ (the sugar found in ____________ milk and ______________ milk products). b) Disaccharides: are ________________ Double sugar (___________________________________) Two simple sugars bonded together Page 17 of 37  They have the common formula __________________ C11H22O11 3 Common Disaccharides along with their building blocks that you will need to know for this course are: Maltose: 2 molecules of glucose i) ____________________________________ ii) ____________________________________ Sucrose: 1 glucose and 1 fructose iii) ____________________________________ Lactose: 1 glucose and 1 galactose c) Polysaccharides: The 3 common polysaccarides that you need to know for this course are: _______________________________________ Starches, cellulose and glycogen (be sure that you can recognize a diagram of their structure and know the function of each of these) - the polysaccarides are long chains of ___________________ glucose molecules bonded together (simple sugars) - the basic formula for these polymers is (C 6 H 10 O 5 )n. n = dozens to thousands of glucose units i) Starch: -_________________________________________ Is the basic storage form of food of plants -starch is made up of many glucose molecules bonded together in long chains with a ___________________________. few side chains ii) Glycogen: Is the "___________________" animal starch (in other words excess glucose in animals is stored as _____________) glycogen in _____________________. liver and muscle tissue In other words, the basic storage forms of food in animals. like starch Glycogen is also made up of long chains of glucose molecules, however it has ______________________ many side chains instead of just a few Between meals - as [glucose] in blood ____________, decrease the glycogen that is stored in the liver and muscle tissue ________________________ is broken down into glucose to raise blood [sugar] to 0.1%. After meals - [glucose] in the blood _________ increase as food is digested. The excess glucose is converted into _________________________________________________ glycogen and stored in the liver and muscle tissues for later use. Page 18 of 37 iii) Cellulose: Is probably the most abundant organic compound found on Earth. cell walls of plants and gives plants their structure Cellulose is formed in the ________________________________________ Cellulose is made of long chains of glucose with ________________________________. alternating linkages and no side chains There is a ______________________________________found different type of linkage between the sugars in cellulose as compared to starch or glycogen. Our digestive system is ___________________________________________. unable to digest this linkage Cellulose passes through our system as _________________________. fiber or roughage It may be important for good health and _________________________________. prevention of colon cancer Functions of Carbohydrates a) Source of ______________________ short-term energy for all organisms. (____________________) all carbohydrates -Energy is released as the carbohydrates are __________________________ broken down by hydrolysis b) ________________________ Structural molecule in plants. (________________) cellulose c) _________________________ Storage form of food in both plants and animals. (_____________________) starch/glycogen U5: CARBOHYDRATES C6H12O6 1. What is the empirical formula for carbohydrates? _____________ 2. Define the following terms and give two examples of each. Monosaccharide- A single, simplest form sugar molecule. Example: Glucose, fructose. Disaccharide- Two monosaccharides joined together through dehydration synthesis. Ex: maltose, lactose Polysaccharide- Many monosaccharides bonded together through dehydration synthesis. Ex: Glycogen, starch 3. Name the three disaccharides that you need to know for this course. Sucrose, maltose, lactose Page 19 of 37  4. Identify the building blocks or monomers that come together to form each of the disaccharides that you listed above. Sucrose: Fructose + Glucose Maltose: Glucose + Glucose Lactose: Galactose + Glucose 5. Name the three polysaccharides that you need to know for this course. Starch, cellulose, glycogen 6. Describe how you can distinguish the structures of each of these polysaccharides. Look at the examples closely and come up with a way to memorize which is which and then explain it (do not just simply draw each structure). Cellulose has no branches in its chain of glucose monomers, and the links between glucose vary with alternating oxygen positions. Starch has long glucose chains with some branching. Links between glucose are consistent. Glycogen has long glucose chains with lots of branching. Links between glucose are consistent. 7. State the functions of each of these polysaccharides. Starch is used as a storage form for short term energy in plants. Cellulose is used as a part of the plant's cell wall structure. Glycogen is a form of sugar storage in animals. 8. Why is cellulose considered "roughage" in our diets? As it cannot be digested by human enzymes Page 20 of 37  1.6 Lipids 2. Lipids: Fats phospholipids ______, oils, waxes, _________________, steroids soaps, __________ We eat lipids as part of our food group. Our bodies are capable of producing them as well as metabolizing them. The three lipids you need to know for this course are the _____________, neutral fats ____________________________. phospholipids and steroids Elements: Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but the H:O ratio is greater than 2:1. Fatty Acids ________________ are one of the two building blocks of neutral fats and are non-polar chains of carbon and hydrogen with a ____________________. carboxyl acid end A tremendous number of variations exist between fatty acids. (be sure that you can recognize a diagram of both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids) Saturated fatty acids those compounds __________________ without double bonds ________________________. between the carbon atoms In other words these molecules are holding all the __________________ hydrogen atoms that they can. Other fatty acids are _____________(compound unsaturated double bonds with ___________ ______________________________). between carbon atoms Neutral Fats:______________________________________ 1 molecule glycerol in combination with 1, 2 or 3 molecules of fatty acids _____________________________. Next to glucose, fats are the ________________________ second most important energy ________________________________. molecules for us Unfortunately, we store the excess in adipose (fat) cells. They function as a _________________________________________________________. long term energy source, insulation, and padding. In the diagram above X = ____________ glycerol fatty acids and Y = _____________ Monoglyceride - one fatty acid attached to a glycerol. Diglyceride - two fatty acids attached to a glycerol. Triglycerisde - three fatty acids attached to a glycerol. Phospholipids Phospholipids are a variation of a triglyceride where one of the 3 fatty acids is replaced with a phosphate_________________________. and a nitrogen-containing group (Note the _______ glycerol _________________________________________ backbone, 2 fatty acids and the phosphate group Page 21 of 37  three building blocks or monomers of phospholipds as the _____________________________________________). This creates a polar region and consequently phospholipids can mix with both polar (likes water) and non-polar (dislikes water) materials. Phospholipids are very important _________________________________________. in cells as they form much of the cell membrane The Heads of phospholipids are polar___________________________. and are said to be water loving (____________) Hydrophilic The Tails of water hating the phospholipids are non polar and are said to be ____________. (______________) Hydrophobic Because they have water soluble heads and water insoluble tails they tend to form a thin film on water with their tails in the air like above. Sterols: Compounds such as sex __________________________ hormones, cholesterol, and some __________________________. of the ingredients in bile Instead of a straight chain of carbon, sterioids are non-polar _________________________. ring structures They are insoluble in water therefore considered a lipid. Example: Cholesterol - important part of _____________________________ cell membrane and the protective nerve around nerve fibers. Note: Cholesterol is important, but too much results in ______________________. fatty deposits inside arteries This narrows the pathway for blood so the heart has to pump harder to push the blood through the body. ie. Increase blood pressure _________________________. Steroids such as Testosterone are able to pass through cell membranes and combine with receptors in the cell ___________________. activates certain genes The steroid receptor complex _________________________ leading to _________________. protein synthesis Increase protein synthesis is better for theathlete _________________________. for muscle development U6: LIPIDS 1. What are the three major types of lipids that you need to know for this course? Neutral fats, phospholipids, steroids 2. Fill in the lipid summary table found below. Lipid Chemical Structure Biological Function Neutral Fat 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids long term energy source, insulation, and padding Phospholipid 1 glycerol + phosphate group + form much of the cell membrane two fatty acids Steroids 3 six-carbon rings, 1 five carbon rings, Depends on steroid type. plus functional groups dependent on steroid. Page 22 of 37  3. How do the bonds differ in a saturated versus unsaturated fatty acid tail? Saturated fats contain maximal number of hydrogen atoms with only single bonds between carbons. Unsaturated fats contain double bonds between carbons and thus lose out on a few hydrogen atoms. 4. The diagram to the right represents an important type of lipid: a. What type of lipid does the diagram represent? Phospholipid b. What cell structure is this lipid primarily responsible for forming? cell membrane c. Please place a circle/oval ( ) around the glycerol backbone, a rectangle ( ) around the fatty acid tails and a cloud ( ) around the phosphate/nitrogen group. d. Identify/label which portion of the molecule is hydrophobic and which portion is hydrophilic. green=hydrophobic, blue=hydrophilic e. Define hydrophobic and hydrophilic. Hydrophobic is non polar and thus insoluble in water and water hating. Hydrophilic is polar, so is soluble in water and water loving. 5. Steroids have a very different structure than the other types of lipids: a. Describe the characteristic structure of a steroid. 3 six-carbon rings, 1 five carbon rings, plus functional groups dependent on steroid. b. Explain why steroids are classified with other lipids. Because they are non-polar, hydrophobic, and thus insoluble in water c. Identify two important steroids in the human body and briefly explain their functions. Cholesterol is an important part of the cell membrane as well as protective cover around nerve fibers. Testosterone increases prostate growth, facial and body hair growth, sex drive, muscle mass and much more. Page 23 of 37 1.7 Proteins 3. Proteins Made of the elements: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and ________. nitrogen ______ is often present Sulfur and phosphorus and iron are sometimes included. The Basic structure of all proteins are: ________________________ long chains of amino acids (or what is called a __________________) polypeptide 21 different amino acids with the general structure like Amino acids - there are about ____ the one below Be sure that you can identify the different parts of an amino acid. Note the _____________, amino group the ________________, carboxyl acid the ______________ central carbon bonded to _________ hydrogen and finally the _____________. radical group R = A variety of other atoms that distinguish one amino acid from another. There are 21 different amino acids so there ___________________________. 21 different R groups Dehydration synthesis ____________________ of amino acids will result in the bonding of amino acids together and the release of _________________. water molecules If we consider the amino acids glycine and alanine, they will bond together and produce the dipeptide "glyala". peptide bond A.As are joined by a ________________. dipeptide A ______________ has one peptide bond where a Tripeptide has two peptide bonds holding ______________________ three amino acids together and so on. The order and combination of these A.A determines the ___________________________________. type of protein that is produced The term __________________ means numerous peptide bonds that join _________________________. polypeptide many amino acids together Dehydration synthesis refers to the way in which a protein molecule is assembled and the factors that cause its specific three dimensional shape. There are four ________________ levels to to protein structureof which you need bonds that hold them in these shapes Remember that chains of to know the first 3 including the ______________________________. amino acids (the subunits or building blocks) which make up a protein are called ____________. monomers Page 24 of 37 The first, or primary ____________ structure as it is called, is simply a __________________________. straight sequence of amino acids Note the peptide bonds that bind these amino acids together. Because there are twenty-one different amino acids, it is easy to realize that there are literally _____________ millions of different variations of amino acid sequences - each with many (some with __________ hundreds of) amino acids. Consequently, there are ______________ millions of proteinsof proteins. As the chains of amino acids get longer they begin to ________________ twist into a spiral (called an ____________). alpha helix This is a result of the stress on the bond angle. _______________ Hydrogen bonds form between the Hydrogen of one amino acid and an Oxygen further down the chain. An alpha helix contains 3.6 amino acids per spiral. There are other secondary structures, but the alpha helix is the most common and the one you will need to know for this course. The third level is described as the _________________ bending and folding of the alpha helix into globular molecule a _______________. As the helix gets longer there are some amino acids that cannot fit the configuration and therefore cause ______. kinks New bonds can form a three-dimensional shape to hold it into a ________________________. The types of bonds are _____, ionic ___________________________, covalent and/or hydrogen and sometimes _________. sulfur enzymes Tertiary structures occur in some protein systems, particularly ____________, where different three-dimensional configurations are associated with ________ function and with each other. ______________ Hemoglobin is a well-known protein that is actually made up of the association of four 3 dimensional shapes around a central heme (iron containing) component. (This would be considered a _________ quartenary structure which you do not need to know for the purpose of this course) The weaker ____________________ hydrogen and ionic bonds of the tertiary structure are easily broken. They are very sensitive to things like ___________, pH changes the presence of ______________, heavy metal ions or _________________ extreme temperature ___________. changes If a protein's normal _________________ shape is destroyed because of such environmental conditions, it is said to be ___________ denatured (_______________). it will not work Without the enzymes normal shape, the enzyme is _____________________________________ unable to combine effectively with its substrate no chemical reaction will occur and therefore ____________________________. Examples we can see: This is what happens when milk spoils. The protein in milk, Caesin, ____________ denatures and becomes insoluble, forming floating lumps. Egg white is protein. Excess _______________________. heat denatures the protein (fried or poached) Cooking Liver. Page 25 of 37 Be sure you understand these 4 important points: 1. The enzyme _____________________________________________________________ loses its normal three dimensional shape, changing the shape of its active site ___________. 2. Due to the change in the shape of the enzyme's active site the enzyme _______________ can no longer ______________________. bind to its substrate 3. Because the protein (or _____________) enzyme can no longer bind to its substrate the enzyme ______________________________________. cannot perform its normal function 4. Therefore, _____________________________. there is no enzyme activity When enzymes in the human body denature, the ___________________ biochemical pathway they work in no longer functions and the result is __________________________________. disease or possibly even death 1. FUNCTIONAL Enzymes (_________________________) catalyze chemical reactions Reactions that will take 7 hours will take only a fraction of a second. 1. Maltase - ____________________________________________ converts maltose to glucose and glucose 2. Carbonic Anhydrase: __________________________________ In blood, maintains blood pH Transport System - ________________________________________________ hemoglobin - transports O2, CO2, and H+ Infection fighting - _________________________________ Antibodies attack viruses 2. STRUCTURAL -Used to __________________________ build up body systems Keratin - _________________________ fingernails and hair Collagen - ________________________ Connective tissue Actin/myosin - ________________ muscle fiber for movement U7: PROTEINS 1. Identify the basic building block (monomer) of all proteins. the amino acid structure, which includes the amino group, a carboxyl group and a hydrogen atom bonded to a central carbon atom, which is bonded to the R-group which varies between proteins. Page 26 of 37 2. Draw the generic structure of the basic building block of proteins and clearly labeling its 4 key parts. Hydrogen Amino Group H Carboxyl H O +H N C C H O- R 3. A dipeptide is: R-group a. formed by what type of reaction? Dehydration synthesis b. held together by what type of bond? Peptide bond 4. Please describe the following levels of protein structure including the types of bonds that are involved: a. Primary The chain of amino acids held together with peptide bonds b. Secondary The alpha helix shape of the chain held held together with hydrogen bonds c. Tertiary and Quaternary Globular shape of the helix held together with ionic, covalent, hydrogen, and sulfur bonds 5. Describe what is meant when we say a protein/enzyme is denatured. The protein/enzyme loses its 3 dimensional tertiary form, and becomes denatured. Additionally, the enzyme will no longer be able to combine with its substrate due to the change in structure, and no reaction will occur. 6. Identify at least three factors that can denature proteins/enzymes. pH change, increase in temperature, and alcohol. Page 27 of 37  7. Define enzyme and give two examples of enzymes and their functions in the human body. Enzymes are proteins which catalyze chemical reactions within the body. The enzyme maltase splits maltose disaccharides into two glucose monomers. Carbonic Anhydrase, another enzyme, is found in the blood stream and maintains blood pH. 8. Describe what is meant by a structural protein and provide two examples in the human body. Structural proteins are those used to build up bodily systems. Structural proteins include Keratin, found in the fingernails and hair, as well as collagen, in connective tissues. 1.8 Nucleic Acids 4. Nucleic Acids - are made up of ______________. polymers and nucleotides A nucleotide has 3 components to it, __________________________________ a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous ________. base Be sure that you can label it and recognize its structure. There are three types of nucleic acids. _______________ DNA and RNA are the genetic material and are involved in the functioning of chromosomes __________ _______________________. and protein synthesis We will study these in more detail in a later unit. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) One particularly important nucleic acid is the modified nucleotide known as ATP _______. ATP is quite simply an ______________ RNA nucleotide with an ______________ adenine base (adenine + ribose = adenosine) with _________________ three phosphate groups attached to it. Note: the ~ line in between the phosphate groups high energy bonds is used to indicate _______________________. Phosphate bonds are unique in that they are _______________________. very rich in energy Cells store energy as Chemical energy in this way. In order to release the energy, an enzyme, ATPase, breaks one of the bonds, thus producing _____ ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and ________. energy ADP can be recycled. Page 28 of 37 We can add a phosphate group back to the ADP with a small input of energy and we get an ATP molecule back. In this way, ATP is often called the energy currency of a cell (because cells make and "spend" ATP) FAT GLYCOGEN GLUCOSE ATP Savings Bond Bank Account Piggy Bank Pocket Cash ATP ADP + P + Energy (7 Kcal per mole) ATP molecules can be moved all over the body. When energy is needed, the ___________________ 3rd phosphate group broken off is _________________. This results in Adenosine __________ _________________ Diphosphate (ADP) and the release of heat ____ _______. The heat energy runs metabolic energy ________________. reactions U8: NUCLEIC ACIDS 1. Identify the basic building block (monomer) of nucleic acids. A Nitrogenous base, a Phosphate group, and a sugar 2. Draw the generic structure of the basic building block of nucleic acids and label its three key parts. NH2 N C O- C N H C N C C H O- P O CH2 O N H H O H OH H OH 3. ATP is a key nucleotide in the human body: a. What does "ATP" stand for? adenosine triphosphate b. What is ATP's primary function? It is the energy currency of the cell. They can be moved all over the body depending on where energy is needed. Page 29 of 37 c. Does ATP release energy when it is being formed (dehydration synthesis) or broken down (hydrolysis)? When ATP is broken down by ATPase through hydrolysis, it releases ADP and energy. ~ END OF UNIT 1 LEARNING GUIDE ~ Page 30 of 37