Human Growth and Development Through the Life Stages PDF

# Human Growth and Development Through the Life Stages ## Getting Started - What do you know about lifespan development? - Describe your development using the life stages infancy, early childhood and adolescence. - Predict your development in early and late adulthood. - Reflect on your description...

# Human Growth and Development Through the Life Stages ## Getting Started - What do you know about lifespan development? - Describe your development using the life stages infancy, early childhood and adolescence. - Predict your development in early and late adulthood. - Reflect on your descriptions and predictions and see if you would change them. ## A Human Growth and Development Through the Life Stages ### A1 Physical Development Across the Life Stages - Physical growth and development continues throughout a person's life. - Physical growth does not always occur smoothly. For example: - During puberty you may grow quickly, then stay the same height for a while. - A child may suddenly learn to climb stairs. #### Table 1.1: Key features of growth and physical development at each life stage | Life stage | Age | Key features | |---|---|---| | Birth and infancy | 0-2 years | Infants grow quickly, reaching approximately half their adult height by age 2. At around 1 year old infants can walk, and by 2 years of age they can run. | | Early childhood | 3-8 years | Children continue to grow at a steady pace. They continue to develop strength and coordination. | | Adolescence | 9-18 years | Adolescents experience growth spurts. They develop sexual characteristics during puberty. | | Early adulthood | 19-45 years | Young adults reach the peak of their physical fitness. | | Middle adulthood | 46-65 years | The ageing process begins with some loss of strength and stamina. Women go through menopause. | | Later adulthood | 65 years onwards | The ageing process continues with gradual loss of mobility. Older adults will experience a loss of height of up to a few centimetres. | ### Growth and Development are Different Concepts - **Growth** is an increase in a measurable quantity, for example, height or weight. - **Development** is the complex changes in skills and capabilities that an individual experiences as they grow. - Life stages are marked by physical, physiological, and psychological changes. ### Key Terms - **Growth**: An increase in some measured quantity such as height or weight. - **Development**: Complex changes including an increase in skills, abilities, and capabilities. ### Skills and Abilities as Milestones - Skills and abilities such as gross and fine motor skills and thinking and language skills develop alongside the social roles and expectations associated with different stages of the lifespan. - These are referred to as milestones. ### Principles of Growth - Growth describes an increase in quantity. - Growth is continuous but not smooth. - Growth rates vary in different parts of the body. ### Principles of Development - Development involves changes that can be complex and involve ability levels altering. - Development happens: - **From head to toe**: Infants first gain control over their head, then develop control over their body to sit, then gain control over their legs and feet to crawl and walk. - **From the inside to the outside**: An infant learns to control movements in their body first, then in their arms and legs, then controls the small muscles in their finger. - **In the same sequence, but at different rates**. - **Holistically**: Areas of development are dependent on and influence each other. ### Development as a Journey - Development can be seen as a journey in which children reach key milestones. - These milestones are also known as developmental norms. ### Key Terms - **Development norms**: A description of an average set of expectations with respect to a young child's development. For example, by the age of 12 months, a child can stand alone. - **Milestone**: An ability achieved by most children by a certain age. For example, being able to walk, share with others, express emotions, recognise familiar sounds, and talk. ### Four Main Areas of Skills Acquisition 1. **Physical**: Gross and fine motor skills. 2. **Social Development** 3. **Emotional Development** 4. **Intellectual Development and Language Skills** ### Every Child is Unique - Although children pass through the same developmental stages, remember that every child is unique and develops at their own rate. - Developmental norms help describe an average set of expectations but do not mean a child is gifted if they develop faster than the norm. - Norms do not mean a child is developing slower if they develop slower than the norm. ### Holistic Development - Most people experience physical, intellectual, emotional and social development holistically. - For example, the development of a child's social skills depends on the development of their intellectual and language skills. - Developmental milestones guide professionals and enable them to recognize, monitor and take appropriate action if development is delayed. ### Physical Development in Infancy and Early Childhood #### Development of Gross Motor Skills - Gross motor skills involve using the large muscles of the body. - Gross motor skills allow children to control body movements that require the use of large muscles like the legs, arms, and torso of the body. - Gross motor skills begin to develop as soon as a baby is born. - Gross motor skills are essential for physical play, for example playing tag. - Everyday tasks like walking upstairs, running, jumping, and throwing a ball require the use of gross motor skills. #### Development of Fine Motor Skills - Fine motor skills involve actions that require the use of smaller muscles in the hands, fingers, and toes. - Fine motor skills allow infants to: - Pick things up using their finger and thumb. - Wriggle their toes in the sand. - Hold a crayon or small toy. - Fine motor skills include tasks such as: - Dressing and undressing. - Drawing and scribbling. - Stacking toys. #### Infancy (0-2 years) #### Development Milestones - Newborn babies are helpless when it comes to muscle coordination and control. - By around the age of two, infants develop and use both gross and fine motor skills as they become more independent. - For example, when playing with shape-sorting toys, they use gross motor skills to hold their body steady enough to grasp the shapes firmly and use fine motor skills to fit each shape in the correct slot. #### Table 1.2: Gross and Fine Motor Skills Developmental Milestones in Infancy | Age | Gross Motor Skills | Fine Motor Skills | |---|---|---| | Newborn | Primitive reflexes such as grasp | Holds their thumbs tucked into their hands. Opens hands to grasp a finger | | 1 month | Lifts chin, some control of head. | | | 3 months | Rolls over, can sit up for a short time without support, kicks legs when held up. | Can briefly grasp a rattle. | | 6 months | | Moves objects from hand to hand, can pick up dropped toys if they are in sight. | | 9-10 months | Crawls, begins to cruise (walking while holding on to objects) | | | 12-13 months | Stands alone, can walk without help | Uses finger and thumb to hold a small object. Manipulates and places toys. | | 18 months | Climbs onto furniture. Propels a sit-on toy with their feet, throws a large ball. | Builds a short tower with blocks. Draws lines and circles, turns a page. | | 2 years | Jumps from a low step, kicks a ball | Uses a spoon and fork, builds a tower of 7-8 blocks. | | 2 and a half years | | | #### Early Childhood (3-8 years) #### Development of Gross Motor Skills - Children's practical abilities associated with gross motor skills continue to develop. - By the age of three, most children are able to use pedals to ride a tricycle, run, and balance on one foot for one second. - By the age of four, children may be able to kick and throw a large ball. - At five years, they can hop using each foot separately. - By the age of six or seven, a child may be able to skip and ride a bicycle. - At eight years old, they will have good strength and body coordination so that they can take part in many sports and activities. #### Development of Fine Motor Skills - Fine motor skills are the ability to control and coordinate smaller movements and muscles such as the movement of hands and fingers. - By the age of three, children should be able to control their movements enough to use a pencil to copy letters or build a tower with cubes. - By the age of five, most children should be able to dress and undress on their own, including tying their own shoelaces. - At eight years of age, they will have good control of their small muscles and be able to draw detailed pictures. ### Research: Development Milestones Chart - Find more developmental milestones charts and create a table like Table 1.2 - See when most children would be able to: - Run forwards and backwards - Button and unbutton clothing - Write their own name - Use joined-up writing - Walk in a straight line - Turn the pages of a book. - For each of the points above, state whether this is an example of a gross motor skill or a fine motor skill. #### Adolescence (9-18 years) - During adolescence, males and females will experience a number of physical and growth changes. #### Development of Primary and Secondary Sexual Characteristics - Puberty takes place over several years. - It is a period of rapid change and growth and is experienced by both females and males. #### Table 1.3: Primary and Secondary Sexual Characteristics | | Primary Sexual Characteristics | Secondary Sexual Characteristics | |---|---|---| | Female |_Present at birth and develop during puberty_ | _Develop during puberty_ | | | The uterus enlarges and the vagina lengthens. The ovaries begin to release eggs. The menstrual cycle commences. | Breasts develop and the areola (the area around the nipple) swells and darkens. Hair grows in armpits and pubic area. Redistribution of body fat causing hips to widen. | | Male | Enlargement of penis and testes. Spontaneous erections caused by blood flowing into chambers in the penis may happen. The testicles begin to produce spermatozoa (sperm), beginning of ejaculation. | Changes in larynx (Adam's apple) causing voice to deepen. Hair grows in armpits and pubic area, facial hair. Redistribution of muscle tissue and fat. | #### Key Term: - **Adolescence**: An important status change following the onset of puberty during which a young person develops from a child into an adult #### Puberty - Puberty often starts between the ages of 11 and 13, although it may begin earlier. Boys generally start puberty later, usually between 13 and 15 years of age. - Puberty is a development stage that prepares the body for sexual reproduction. - It is triggered by the action of hormones that control sexual development. - Both boys and girls may experience a growth spurt when they grow taller at a faster rate than before. #### The Role of Hormones in Sexual Maturity - Sex hormones are responsible for the changes that occur in puberty. - The pituitary gland controls the release of sex hormones in both females and males. - The release of sex hormones controls the onset and rate of puberty, the physical changes such as pubic and axillary hair growth and egg and sperm production. - Puberty can prove to be a difficult time emotionally for young people as levels of hormones going up or down often cause mood swings. #### The Main Female Hormones - The main female hormones are oestrogen and progesterone. - The ovaries start to produce oestrogen and progesterone which are responsible for changes including ovulation and menstruation. - The first period is a significant, notable change for young females as it indicates the onset of fertility. #### The Main Male Hormone - The main male hormone is testosterone. - The testes start to produce testosterone which stimulates sperm production, indicating the onset of fertility. - Testosterone is also responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics such as a deeper pitch and tone of the voice. #### Case Study: Changes in Adolescence - **Jake** is 13 and his parents have noticed that he has suddenly become very shy. He has grown taller, his voice has changed, and he has developed body hair. - **Sarah** is 12 and she is embarrassed as her periods have started. She has grown taller, developed body hair, and noticed that her breasts have grown. #### Check your knowledge: 1. Thinking about Jake and Sarah, write a definition that explains the difference between primary and secondary sexual characteristics. 2. List the female and male sex hormones and write a brief description of their function in puberty. #### Research: Physical Development - Physical development is not controlled purely by genetics. - For example, children now start puberty earlier than in the 1860s. - Consider environmental influences that might impact physical development, for example, improvements in diet and increased body weight. #### Early Adulthood (19-45 Years) #### Physical Strength Peaks - Young adults are usually at the peak of their physical performance between the ages of 19 and 28. - By this age, young adults have reached their full height and strength, and reaction time and manual dexterity are also at their peak. - After this, adults may gradually lose some strength and speed, although these changes are often unnoticed outside of competitive sport. - Decline in physical capabilities may be exacerbated toward the end of this life stage if individuals have an unhealthy diet, do not take regular exercise, and maintain an unhealthy lifestyle. - Exercise and a healthy diet can help to develop physical fitness and athletic skills into middle adulthood. #### Key Term: - **Puberty**: A period of rapid growth during which young people reach sexual maturity, and become biologically able to reproduce and secondary sexual characteristics develop. - **Hormones**: Chemical substances produced in the body and transported in the blood stream that control or regulate body cells or body organs. For example, the sex hormones produced by the ovaries and testes are responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics in puberty. #### Later Adulthood (65-plus Years) - Predicting your life course becomes more difficult in the later life stages. - 'Old age' was once deemed 65 years of age until the end of one's life, but as life expectancy has risen, people's ideas of what is 'old' are also changing. #### Key Term - **Life expectancy**: An estimate of the number of years, on average, that a person can expect to live. Sometimes called longevity. ##### Figure 1.2: Changes in Life Expectancy for Males and Females Over the Last 100 Years - Life expectancy for males is often accepted as the maximum lifespan for a human being. - Britain's oldest living person in 2015 was Gladys Hooper from Ryde, Isle of Wight. - Mrs Hooper celebrated her 113th birthday in January 2016. #### Deterioration of Health - In later adulthood, there are many changes associated with the ageing process. - For example, there are changes in body systems and organs which could be the result of disease and that can impact on an individual's lifestyle. - Although most body systems continue to function fairly well, the heart becomes more susceptible to disease. - Individuals may begin to lose height in middle adulthood which continues into later life. - By the age of 80, individuals may have lost as much as 5 cm in height. - This is caused by changes in posture and compression of the spinal discs and joints. - The ageing process also continues with further loss of strength and muscle loss, as well as a reduction in stamina. - Mobility (gross motor skills) and dexterity (fine motor skills) become more difficult. - There are small changes to the brain which include loss or shrinkage of nerve cells and a general slowing of movement and responses. - Visual and hearing problems may interfere with daily life. - Older people can be more susceptible to accidents and falls due to lack of muscular strength and problems with balance or reaction time. - Older people can retain reasonable health, especially if they follow a lifestyle that includes a healthy diet and exercise. - It can be a time when people take up new interests and hobbies that help to keep them physically mobile and their mind active. #### Deterioration of Intellectual Abilities - Although many older people are in good mental health, major depressive disorders tend to be undiagnosed. - Diseases and conditions that can affect health and wellbeing, for example Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease, are more common in older people. - As people are now living longer, Alzheimer's disease has become more prevalent. - Mild cognitive impairment may be an early sign of the disease. #### Key Term - **Cognitive impairment**: When a person has trouble remembering, learning new skills, concentrating or making decisions that affect their everyday life. #### Ageing and the Brain - Ageing can involve a loss of nerve cells in the brain and a reduction in the ability of nerves to transmit electrical signals. - This does not mean that people lose their ability to think logically or to reason as they have a wealth of experience to draw on. - Many older people experience cognitive impairment and report problems with memory recall. - Older people may find themselves often asking, 'Where did I put my glasses?'. - They may say that it takes longer to do things and they may feel they are slowing down. - They may take longer to respond to questions. - Reaction times might also be slower but older people often compensate for these changes, for instance, driving more carefully. - Although older people may worry, these changes are a natural process of ageing and not necessarily symptoms of dementia. - Middle adulthood (46-65 years) - The menopause - Women are most fertile (able to conceive children) in their late teens and early twenties. - The risk of miscarriage and pregnancy complications rises with age. - Between 45 and 55 years of age fertility reduces and then comes to an end in a process called the menopause. - It can take several years to complete. - The menopause involves: - Gradual ending of menstruation (or stopping having periods) and a large reduction of fertile eggs in the ovaries. - An increase in the production of hormones called gonadotropins that try to stimulate egg production, which can cause irritability, hot flushes and night sweats. - A reduction in the sex hormones (oestrogen and progesterone) produced by a woman's ovaries, resulting in some shrinkage of sexual organs and sometimes a reduction in sexual interest. - Associated problems such as osteoporosis, which can be caused by a reduction in the production of sex hormones. - For some women, the general hormonal changes, especially reduction in oestrogen levels experienced during the perimenopause and menopause, can lead to mood changes, depression and anxiety. - This can make a woman feel that she is on an emotional roller coaster. - Some women experience overwhelming sadness that they are no longer able to have children and this can affect their self-image of being a 'desirable' woman. - Self-esteem and self-image can become low, which may impact on self-confidence and on quality of life during this transitional stage of the lifespan. - Effects of the ageing process - Often adults put on weight as they age. '"Middle aged spread'" may happen because adults still eat the same amount of food as they did when they were younger although they have become much less active. - Along with a change in body shape - increased weight and waistline, loss of skin elasticity and loss of muscle tone and strength - people also begin show other signs of ageing, such as greying and thinning of hair and hair loss. - Close your book and draw an outline of a female body. Note the symptoms of perimenopause around the body. - Think about what particular physical functions are changing and possible emotional changes. - Conduct a risk assessment of an athlete's training programme - how are they putting themselves at risk? ## Pause Point - **Hint**: Women in perimenopause generally experience some of these symptoms: - Hot flushes and night sweats - Breast tenderness - Loss of libido (lower sex drive) - Fatigue - Irregular or very heavy periods - Vaginal dryness, discomfort during sex - Mood swings - Trouble sleeping - Urine leakage when coughing or sneezing - Urinary urgency (an urgent need to urinate more frequently). - **Extend**: Close your book and draw an outline of a female body. Note the symptoms of perimenopause around the body. Think about what particular physical functions are changing and possible emotional changes. Conduct a risk assessment of an athlete's training programme - how are they putting themselves at risk? ## Later Adulthood (65-plus Years) - Predicting your life course becomes more difficult in the later life stages. - "Old age" was once deemed to be from 65 years of age until the end of one's life, as life expectancy has risen, people's ideas of what is "old" are also changing. #### Key Term: - **Life expectancy**: An estimate of the number of years, on average, that a person can expect to live. Sometimes called longevity. #### Figure 1.2: Changes in Life Expectancy for Males and Females Over the Last 100 Years - Life expectancy for males is often accepted as the maximum lifespan for a human being. - Britain's oldest living person in 2015 was Gladys Hooper from Ryde, Isle of Wight. - Mrs Hooper celebrated her 113th birthday in January 2016. #### Deterioration of Health - In later adulthood, there are many changes associated with the ageing process. - For example, there are changes in body systems and organs which could be the result of disease and that can impact on an individual's lifestyle. - Although most body systems continue to function fairly well, the heart becomes more susceptible to disease. - Individuals may begin to lose height in middle adulthood which continues into later life. - By the age of 80, individuals may have lost as much as 5 cm in height. - This is caused by changes in posture and compression of the spinal discs and joints. - The ageing process also continues with further loss of strength and muscle loss, as well as a reduction in stamina. - Mobility (gross motor skills) and dexterity (fine motor skills) become more difficult. - There are small changes to the brain which include loss or shrinkage of nerve cells and a general slowing of movement and responses. - Visual and hearing problems may interfere with daily life. - Older people can be more susceptible to accidents and falls due to lack of muscular strength and problems with balance or reaction time. - Older people can retain reasonable health, especially if they follow a lifestyle that includes a healthy diet and exercise. - It can be a time when people take up new interests and hobbies that help to keep them physically mobile and their mind active. #### Deterioration of Intellectual Abilities - Although many older people are in good mental health, major depressive disorders tend to be undiagnosed. - Diseases and conditions that can affect health and wellbeing, for example Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease, are more common in older people. - As people are now living longer, Alzheimer's disease has become more prevalent. - Mild cognitive impairment may be an early sign of the disease. #### Key Term - **Cognitive impairment**: When a person has trouble remembering, learning new skills, concentrating or making decisions that affect their everyday life. #### Ageing and the Brain - Ageing can involve a loss of nerve cells in the brain and a reduction in the ability of nerves to transmit electrical signals. - This does not mean that people lose their ability to think logically or to reason as they have a wealth of experience to draw on. - Many older people experience cognitive impairment and report problems with memory recall. - Older people may find themselves often asking, "Where did I put my glasses?". - They may say that it takes longer to do things and they may feel they are slowing down. - They may take longer to respond to questions. - Reaction times might also be slower, but older people often compensate for these changes, for instance, driving more carefully. - Although older people may worry, these changes are a natural process of ageing and not necessarily symptoms of dementia.