UNIT-1 BharatVarsha - The Land of Civilization & Culture PDF

**UNIT-1 BHARATVARSHA - THE LAND OF CIVILIZATION & CULTURE** **Inclusions:** THE LAND OF CIVILIZATION & CULTURE: The Aryavart, Indus Valley Civilization, Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Fine Arts & Dance Forms, Varnashrama System, Education System, Occupations & Rituals. RICH GEOGRAPHY: Mountains, Rivers, D...

**UNIT-1 BHARATVARSHA - THE LAND OF CIVILIZATION & CULTURE** **Inclusions:** THE LAND OF CIVILIZATION & CULTURE: The Aryavart, Indus Valley Civilization, Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Fine Arts & Dance Forms, Varnashrama System, Education System, Occupations & Rituals. RICH GEOGRAPHY: Mountains, Rivers, Deserts, Coast Line, Soil Types, Natural Resources, Minerals, Seasons & Weathers, Agriculture & Major crops. **Aim:** To develop awareness among the students about Indian Civilization, Culture & Heritage & also about the resources & Geographical richness of Bharatvarsha. **Expected Outcomes:** After completion of Unit 1, the students will be understanding Indian civilization, Ancient Indian Education systems, Indian culture & rituals. Students will be able to understand importance of Vedas in their life. Students will be knowing about the Geographical richness of Bharat varsha, the Mountain ranges, pious rivers & other natural resources. **1.1 THE ARYAVARTA** The Vishnu Purana, one of the eighteen Mahapuranas of Hindu mythology, contains a shloka or verse that describes the natural boundaries of India. The shloka is as follows: \"उत्तरं यत्समुद्रस्य हिमाद्रेश्चैव दक्षिणम् । वर्षं तद् भारतं नाम भारती यत्र संततिः ।।\" Source: Vishnu Puran, Book 2, Chapter III This shloka can be translated as follows: \"The country (varṣam) that lies north of the ocean and south of the snowy mountains is called Bharatam; there dwell the descendants of Bharata. " The shloka defines the natural boundaries of India, stating that the northern boundary is the Himalayas, the southern boundary is the ocean, and the eastern and western boundaries are not explicitly mentioned. The verse also mentions that the land is called Bharatam, which is a Sanskrit name for India, and it is the land where the descendants of Bharata, an ancient Indian king, reside. The Baudhayana (perhaps compiled in the 8th to 6th centuries BCE) declares that Aryavarta is the land that lies west of Kalakavana, east of Adarsana, south of the Himalayas and north of the Vindhyas. India falls under Jambudweep. Indian culture is the greatest culture in the world. Today's Bharatvarsha once known as Aryavarta is the oldest nation in the world. India had been invaded & attacked by many countries & people like French, Dutch, Kushan, Shak, Yemen, Greeks, Mughals and British & as consequences was divided 24 times in the known history of last 2500 years. There is no such description in history that show any attacks on countries like Afghanistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, Malaysia because all these were part of Aryavarta. Undivided India extended from the Himalayas to the Indian Ocean and from Iran to Indonesia. Estimated area of India in 1857 was about 83 lakh square kilometers, which currently measures just 33 lakh square kilometers. India was divided many from 1857 to as follows Afghanistan was separated from India in 1876, Nepal in 1904, Bhutan in 1906, Tibet in 1914, Sri Lanka in 1935, Myanmar in 1937 and Pakistan in 1947. Aryavarta (Sanskrit: आर्यावर्त, i.e.\" Land of the Aryans". It is a term for the northern Indian Subcontinent along with some other parts in the ancient Hindu Texts such as Dharamshastras and Sutras, referring to the area of the Indian subcontinent settled by Indo Aryans tribes and where Indo-Aryan religion and rituals predominated. The limits of Aryavarta of extended over time, as reflected in the various sources, as the influence of the Brahmanical ideology spread eastwards in post-Vedic times. The Manusmrti gives the name to \"the tract between the Himalayas and the Vindhya range, from the Eastern Sea (Bay of Bengal to the Western Sea (Arabian Sea). Traditionally, either the Vindhya Mountains or the Narmada River in central India have traditionally formed the boundary between northern and southern India, between Aryavrata and the Deccan. As the name suggests, Aryavarta was inhabited primarily by speakers of Indo-Aryan languages, and is the homeland of much of what is considered "standard" in Hinduism and Indian culture: Sanskrit, the reverence for the cow, an emphasis on vegetarianism as a sacred duty, well-defined caste divisions, worship of the god Rama, amongst other features. This is the classical Indian culture that emerged between 500 BCE and 500 CE. Aryavrata underwent massive demographic shifts with the spread of agriculture and migrations from West and Central Asia, whereas the Deccan absorbed only trickles of merchants and Brahmins from the north, and its population density remains significantly lower than that of the Ganges Valley. **1.1.1 Factors Leading to Civilization** Civilization describes a complex way of life that came about as people began to develop networks of urban settlements. The earliest civilizations developed between 4000 and 3000 B.C.E Civilizations thrived in the Indus Valley by about 2500 B.C.E. The advent of civilization depended on the ability of some agricultural settlements to consistently produce surplus food, which allowed some people to specialize in non- agricultural work, which in turn allowed for increased production, trade, population, and social stratification. The first civilizations appeared in locations where the geography was favorable to intensive agriculture. Governments and states emerged as rulers gained control over larger areas and more resources, often using writing and religion to maintain social hierarchies and consolidate power over larger areas and populations. Writing allowed for the codification of laws, better methods of record-keeping, and the birth of literature, which fostered the spread of shared cultural practices among larger populations. The first civilizations appeared in major river valleys, where floodplains contained rich soil and the rivers provided irrigation for crops and a means of transportation. Early civilizations were often unified by religion---a system of beliefs and behaviors that deal with the meaning of existence. **1.2 Indus Valley Civilization** The Indus Valley Civilization was established around 3300 BC. It flourished between 2600 BC and 1900 BC (Mature Indus Valley Civilization). It started declining around 1900 BC and disappeared around 1400 BC. This is also called Harappan Civilization after the first city to be excavated, Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan). Pre-Harappan civilization has been found in Mehrgarh, Pakistan which shows the first evidence of cotton cultivation. Geographically, this civilization covered Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Western Uttar Pradesh. It extended from Sutkagengor (in Baluchistan) in the West to Alamgirpur (Western UP) in the East; and from Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the South. Some Indus Valley sites have also been found as far away as Afghanistan and Turkmenistan. **Significant Features of Indus Valley Civilization** The Indus Valley cities show a level of sophistication and advancement not seen in other contemporary civilizations. Most cities had similar patterns. There were two parts: a citadel and the lower town. Most cities had a Great Bath. There were also granaries, 2-storied houses made of burnt bricks, closed drainage lines, excellent storm water, and wastewater management system, weights for measurements, toys, pots, etc. A large number of seals have been discovered. Agriculture was the most important occupation. The first civilization to cultivate cotton. Animals were domesticated like sheep, goats, and pigs. Crops were wheat, barley, cotton, ragi, dates, and peas. Trade was conducted with the Sumerians. Metal products were produced including those with copper, bronze, tin, and lead. Gold and silver were also known. Iron was not known to them. No structures like temples or palaces have been found. The people worshipped male and female deities. A seal which was named 'Pashupati Seal' has been excavated and it shows an image of a three-eyed figure. Marshall believed this to be an early form of Lord Shiva. Excellent pieces of red pottery designed in black have been excavated. Faience was used to make beads, bangles, earrings, and vessels. Civilization also was advanced in making art works. A statuette named 'Dancing Girl' has been found from Mohenjodaro and is believed to be 4000 years old. A figure of a bearded Priest-King has also been found from Mohenjodaro. Lothal was a dockyard. Disposal of the dead was by burial in wooden coffins. Later on, in the H Symmetry culture, bodies were cremated in urns. The Indus Valley script has not yet been deciphered (Could not be read). 1.3 Major cities of Indus valley Civilization 1\. Mohenjodaro in Sindh Province, Pakistan 2\. Kalibangan in Rajasthan 3\. Lothal in Gujrat 4\. Surkotada in Gujrat 5\. Banawali in Haryana 6\. Dholavira in Gujrat **1.3.1 The decline of Indus Valley Civilization** Causes of the decline of this civilization have not been firmly established. Archaeologists now believe that the civilization did not come to an abrupt end but gradually declined. People moved eastwards and cities were abandoned. Mortimer Wheeler suggested that the Aryan invasion led to the decline of the Indus Valley. Robert Raikes suggests that tectonic movements and floods caused the decline. Other causes cited include a drying up of the rivers, deforestation, and destruction of the green cover. It is possible that some cities were destroyed by floods but not all. It is now accepted that several factors could have led to the decline of the Indus Valley civilization. **1.4 Indian Fine Arts** The forms of artwork found in ancient India include rock art painting (pictoglyphs), rock art carving (petroglyphs), and sculptures. These sculptures were constructed from materials such as bronze and terracotta. Indian Art is a term used in art history to group & study the different artistic expressions created in the historical regions of Indian subcontinent, including modern day India, Bangladesh & areas of Pakistan & Afghanistan The people of the Indus valley civilization on the border of modern India and Pakistan produced the earliest known Indian art sculptures, from between 2500 and 1800 BCE. They were small terracotta and bronze figures depicting animals and humans, like cows, monkeys, and dancing positions. Archaeologists have found evidence of prehistoric rock art in India, an early art form consisting of carvings or drawings on cave rocks. The oldest examples are the Bhimbetka (Bhopal) petroglyphs found in central India and believed to be at least 29,000 years old. Rock art continued to be created as cave paintings, representing animals and humans. The oldest examples of these paintings date from about 7000 BCE. Buddhism originated in India at some point in the 6th century BCE. Religious artists made sculpture pieces, including stone and bronze. They also produced magnificent examples of Indian cave art. The Ajanta Caves are 29 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments dating from the second century BCE to about 480 CE in the Aurangabad District of Maharashtra state in India. Ajanta Caves are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Ellora Caves (UNESCO World Heritage) are a multi-religious rock-cut cave complex with inscriptions dating from the period 6th century CE onwards, located in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra. There are over 100 caves at the site, all excavated from the basalt cliffs in the Charanandri Hills, these consist of 17 Hindu (caves 13--29), 12 Buddhist (caves 1--12) and 5 Jain (caves 30--34) caves. They were built close to one another and illustrate the religious harmony that existed in ancient India. The Elephanta Caves are a collection of cave temples predominantly dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva, which have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. These Caves are a network of sculpted caves situated on Elephanta Island. The temples at Khajuraho were built during the Chandella dynasty, which reached its apogee between 950 and 1050. Only about 20 temples remain; they fall into three distinct groups and belong to two different religions -- Hinduism and Jainism. They strike a perfect balance between architecture and sculpture. Ibn Battuta visited Khajuraho and described the presence of temples and a few ascetics. Some temples were damaged by Sikander Lodi in 1495. By the 16th century Khajuraho became an insignificant place and was only \"rediscovered\" by C. J. Franklin in 1819. **1.5 Dance Forms in India:** Two Major dance forms of India are classical and folk dance. Classical dance has a deep-rooted relationship with the Natya Shastra where the specific features of each of the Classical dance forms have been mentioned. Folk dance, on the other hand, emerged from the local tradition of the respective state, ethnic or geographic regions. **1.6 Varnaashram System: As per the duties performed by the individuals** According to Hindu texts, Varnashram-dharma is not a man-made system but refers to natural classifications that appear to various degrees in all human societies. Individuals have different innate tendencies for work and exhibit a variety of personal qualities. Focus is on responsibilities (which naturally fulfil the rights of others). Each varna and ashram has its own specified dharma. What may be desirable for one section of society may be degrading for another. Four varnas -- brahmanas (priests, teachers, and intellectuals) Kshatriyas (police, army, and administration) Vaishyas (farmers, merchants, and business people) Shudras (artisans and workers). Society is compared to a body with the brahmanas as the head, kshatriyas as the arms, vaishyas as the belly (or thighs) and the shudras as the legs Social functions are determined according to this analogy. For example, the Brahmanas are the eyes and mouth of society. They provide a spiritual vision for society and teach people accordingly. Just as the arms are raised to defend the body, the Kshatriya's main duty is to protect society. The Vaishya's main duty is material nourishment, and the Shudra supports all other sections of society. **Common Misunderstandings** Mahatma Gandhi, the most famous opponent of caste abuse, actually believed in the original principles of varnashrama-dharma. The system of four varnas (with subdivisions) was based on mutual support and service, allowing for upward and downward mobility. The caste system, as it has now become, is rigid and hereditary, often motivated by exploitation and a desire to maintain the status-quo. "Chaturvarnam maya srista Gunakarmavibhagasah, tasya kartaram api mam viddhy akartaram avyayam" "According to the three gunas and the work associated with them, the four divisions of human society are created by Me." Lord Krishna, in Shri Mad Bhagavad-gita 4.13 **1.6.1 The symbolism and significance of the four Asramas in human life, is illustrated below:** **Asrama Age Presiding Deities Knowledge** Brahmacarya Childhood Brahma and Sarasvathi Lower Knowledge Grihasta Young age Vishnu and Lakshmi Worldly Knowledge Vanaprastha Middle age Siva and Parvathi Higher Knowledge Sanyasa Old age Isvara Self-Knowledge **Asrama Type of Sacrifice Gain Purushartha** Brahmacarya Morning Sacrifice Knowledge Dharma Grihasta Mid-day sacrifice Wealth and progeny Artha and Kama Vanaprastha Evening Sacrifice Wisdom Moksha Sanyasa Internal Sacrifice Liberation Moksha **Asrama Resting place Main Duty Supporting organ** Brahmacarya Gurukula Study Mind and senses Grihasta Svagriha Sacrifice Intelligence Vanaprastha Forest dwelling Contemplation (chintan) Breath Sanyasa The world Renunciation(parityag) Self **Source: https://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/concepts/ashramas.asp** **1.7 Education System in Ancient India** Ancient education. During the ancient period, two systems of education were developed, Vedic, and Buddhist. The medium of language during the Vedic system was Sanskrit, while those in the Buddhist system were Pali. During those times the education was of Vedas, Brahmanas, Upnishads, and Dharmasutras. From the time of Rigveda onwards, our ancient education system evolved over the period and focused on the holistic development of the individual by taking care of both the inner and the outer self. The system focused on the moral, physical, spiritual and intellectual aspects of life. It emphasised on values such as humility, truthfulness, discipline, self- reliance and respect for all creations. Students were taught to appreciate the balance between human beings and nature. Sources of learning were drawn from various disciplines such as Itihas (history), Anviksiki (logic), Mimamsa (interpretation) Shilpashastra (architecture), Arthashastra (polity), Varta (agriculture, trade, commerce, animal husbandry) and Dhanurvidya (archery). Physical education too was an important curricular area and pupils participated in krida (games, recreational activities), vyayamaprakara (exercises), dhanurvidya (archery) for acquiring martial skills, and yogasadhana (training the mind and body) among others. The Gurus and their pupils worked conscientiously together to become proficient in all aspects of learning. Shastrartha (learned debates) were the examination to evaluate students' learning. Sources of learning were drawn from various disciplines such as Itihas (history), Anviksiki (logic), Mimamsa (interpretation) Shilpashastra (architecture), Arthashastra (polity), Varta (agriculture, trade, commerce, animal husbandry) and Dhanurvidya (archery). Physical education too was an important curricular area and pupils participated in krida (games, recreational activities), vyayamaprakara (exercises), dhanurvidya (archery) for acquiring martial skills, and yogasadhana (training the mind and body) among others. The Gurus and their pupils worked conscientiously together to become proficient in all aspects of learning. Shastrartha (learned debates) were the examination to evaluate students' learning. In ancient India, both formal and informal ways of education system existed. Indigenous education was imparted at home, in temples, pathshalas, tols, chatuspadis and gurukuls. There were people in homes, villages and temples who guided young children in imbibing pious ways of life. Students went to viharas and universities for higher knowledge. Teaching was largely oral and students remembered and meditated upon what was taught in the class. Gurukuls, also known as ashrams, were the residential places of learning. Many of these were named after the sages. Situated in forests, in serene and peaceful surroundings, hundreds of students used to learn together in gurukuls. Women too had access to education during the early Vedic period. Among the prominent women Vedic scholars, we find references to Maitreyi, Viswambhara, Apala, Gargi and Lopamudra, to name a few. During that period, the gurus and their shishyas lived together helping each other in day- to-day life. The main objective was to have complete learning, leading a disciplined life and realising one\'s inner potential. The gurukul was also the place where the relationship of the guru and shishya strengthened with time. The emphasis was given not only on the outer dimensions of the discipline but also on enriching inner dimensions of the personality. Many monasteries/viharas were set up for monks and nuns to meditate, debate and discuss with the learned for their quest for knowledge during this period. Around these viharas, other educational centers of higher learning developed, ancient education system of India attracted students from China, Korea, Tibet, Burma, Ceylon, Java, Nepal and other distant countries. The evidences from history tell us that Xuan Zang and I-Qing (Chinese scholars) visited India in search of knowledge, kings and society took active interest in promoting education & as a result many famous educational centers came into existence. Among the most notable universities that evolved during this period were situated at Takshashila, Nalanda, Valabhi, Vikramshila, Odantapuri and Jagaddala. These universities developed in connection with the viharas. **1.7.1 Takshashila** Takshashila was a noted center of learning, including religious teachings of Buddhism. Takshashila became famous as a place of learning due to its teachers\' expertise. Among its noted pupils were the legendary Indian grammarian, Panini. He was an expert in language and grammar and authored one of the greatest works on grammar called Ashtadhyayi. Jivaka, one of the most renowned physicians in ancient India. and Chanakya (also known as Kautilya), a skilled exponent of statecraft, both studied here. Takshashila was an ancient Indian city, which is now in north-western Pakistan. it was destructed in the 5th century CE. **1.7.2 Nalanda** Nalanda is located in present day Rajgir, Bihar, was a center of higher learning in various subjects. The University attracted scholars from the different parts of the country as well as world. The Chinese scholars I-Qing and Xuan Zang visited Nalanda in the 7th century CE. They have given vivid accounts of Nalanda. They have noted that as many as one hundred discourses happened on a daily basis, in a variety of disciplines through the methods of debate and discussions. Xuan Zang himself became a student of Nalanda to study yogashastra. He has mentioned that the Chancellor of Nalanda, Shilabhadra, was the highest living authority in yoga. The courses of study offered by Nalanda. Students at Nalanda studied the Vedas and were also trained in fine arts, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, politics and the art of warfare. The Indian education system continued in the form of ashrams, in temples and as indigenous schools. During the medieval period, maktabas and madrassas became part of the education system. **1.8 Occupations in Ancient India** Main Occupations of ancient India were: 1\. Scribes 2\. Farmers 3\. Blacksmiths 4\. Carpenters 5\. Traders **1.8.1 Scribes:** One of ancients India's specific jobs was being a scribe. The main job of a scribe was to keep track of things that people said and to keep track of things that people said and to keep tracks of important events that happened. **1.8.2 Farmers:** Another specific job in ancient India was being a farmer. Farmers' jobs were to use those crops to provide food for all of the people. **1.8.3 Blacksmiths:** Another one of Ancient India's important jobs was blacksmithing. Blacksmiths mostly used iron, flint, copper and bronze to make used for many other jobs. **1.8.4 Carpenters** Carpentry was another important job in Ancient India. Carpenters' job was to use mud bricks to create buildings like houses for all of the people. In fact, Indians were actually the first people to use mud bricks. **1.8.5 Traders:** One of Ancient India's specialized jobs was being a trader. The Indians would trade with China, west Asia and Europe and they would trade things like gold, silk, and pottery. **1.8.6 Other common Occupations:** Dancer Teacher Story Teller Musician Weaver Artist Sculptor **1.9 Main Rituals & Sanskars** **1.9.1 Garbhadhana Ceremony:** At the pre-natal stage, the role of the mother in the education of her child is significant. It was rightly thought that the child's education did not actually begin with the teacher or thepreceptor to whom he went during the Brahmacharya Ashram. But it actually began with the mother who brought him into the world, purpose of the ceremony was that the mothershould have pure thoughts and good health. Peaceful surrounding was also needed for mental health of the mother. प्रजां च धत्तं द्रविणं च धत्तम्: bestow upon us progeny and affluence --- Rig Veda 8.35.10 - 8.35.12, Translated by Ralph Griffith **1.9.2 Pumvasana:** "Pumsavana is one of the Shodasha Karmas (Sixteen rituals) which is performed during pragnancy in ancient India. This Sanskar is performed with the chanting of the Vedic Mantras So that, a child is born and healthy and intelligent. **1.9.3 Simantonayan** This Sanskar is performed un completion of 6-8 month from the conceiving of a baby. As there has been physical and mental development a baby in the womb of the mother, similar to baby shower today. **1.9.4 Jatakarma** The first ceremony held after the birth of a child or the postnatal ceremony is known as jatakarma. **1.9.5 Naming the baby ritual, Namakarana** Namkarana is the \"ceremony of naming a child\". This ritual is usually done on the eleventh or twelfth day after birth, the infant is bathed and dressed in new garments. The naming ritual declares the child as an individual, after which a child is accepted and known by that name by people around him or her. **1.9.6 Nishkramana** Nishkraman means going out. On the fourth month from the birth, a child is taken out of home to see the world after a holy visit to a temple. **1.9.7 Annaprasana Ceremony** This ceremony is held when the child is given food for the first time. The real significance of this ritual was that it was the duty of the mother to provide food other than the milk to the child for proper nourishment. **1.9.8 Baby\'s first haircut, Chudakarana or Mundan** A baby\'s first haircut is called choulam samskara.This sanskara marks the child\'s first haircut, typically the shaving of the head. **1.9.9 Baby\'s earlobe piercing rite, Karnavedha** Karnavedha literally means \"ear-piercing\". The purpose of this optional ritual is primarily an ornamentation of the body. **1.9.10 Vidyarambha Ritual (Sanskara)** This ceremony mark starting the formal primary education, Child's head is completely shaved. It is done at the age of 5. This sanskara was also known as 'Aksharasvikaranam' meaning commencement of primary education or learning of the alphabet. **1.9.11 Upanayana (Initiation or Thread Ceremony):** Formal or regular education of the child started with this ceremony. It was the beginning of the Vedic studies of the child under the care of a Guru. **1.9.12 Medhajanana:** Upanayana is ended by the performance of the Medhajanana when the Gods are invoked for the development of the Brahmachari's mental powers (memory, intelligence etc.) **1.9.13 Upakarma: (Sravani):** This ritual was performed by the teacher and the student at the beginning of the academic session on the onset of the monsoon. The ceremony was held on the day of Sravana Purnima, i.e. full-moon day of the month of Sravana (July-August). At this ceremony, work and progress of the preceding year were reviewed and work of the New Year was arranged. **1.9.14 Utsarjana:** This ceremony is also called dispersal ceremony. This was performed at the end of the academic session in the full-moon day of the month of Pausha (Jan-Feb). It marked the close or end of each year's work. **1.9.15 Samavaj-tana or Convocation Ritual:** It is also known as "Snana" ritual. Samavartana generally means graduation. Literally it means-the returning home of the student bidding farewell to his teacher after paying him such "honorarium" (gurudakshina) as he could afford. **1.9.16 The wedding rituals, Vivaha** Vivah is the rite of passage and rituals associated with marriage. While there are many rituals in Hinduism, vivaha (wedding) is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her life. **1.9.17 Cremation ritual, Antyeshti** Also known as Antima Samskaram, Antya-kriya, are the rituals associated with funeral or the last ritual done with a dead body. This samskara is not mentioned in the lists of samskaras in most of the grhyasutras and other texts that discuss samskaras. **1.10 Rich Indian Geography** There are 7 major mountain ranges in India: Himalayan Mountain Ranges Karakoram and Pir Panjal Eastern Mountain Range or The Purvanchal Range Satpura and Vindhya Aravalli Range Western Ghats Eastern Ghats **1.10.1 The Himalaya Range:** The highest mountain range of India, Himalaya literally translates to \"abode of snow\" from Sanskrit. The Himalayan Mountain is the youngest range of India and is a new fold mountain formed by the collision of two tectonic plates. The Himalayan Mountain Range has almost every highest peak of the world Nanga Parbat and Namcha Barwa is considered as the western and eastern point of the Himalayas. Mount Everest is the highest peak of the world at 8848m. It lies in the Himalayan Range in Nepal. Himalayas is also the source of many great river ranges, including the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus. Himalayas also play a vital role in regulating the climate in northern India. **1.10.2 Karakoram Range:** Karakoram Range and Pir Panjal Range lies to the North-west and south of the Himalayan Range. A major part of the Karakoram Range lies under the disputed category of Indian and Pakistan It holds many largest peaks of Earth. K2, the second highest peak of the world, at 8,611m It holds the Siachen Glacier and The Biafo Glacier, which are world\'s 2nd and 3rd largest glaciers. The Pir Panjal Range is located in southern direction of Himalayas This range is also known as Lower Himalayas. Rivers like Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum flow through this range. The city of Gulmarg, a very important hill station, lies here. **1.10.3 Eastern Mountain Range or The Purvanchal Range:** This Range can be considered as the extension of Himalayas in the eastern part of India. The Purvanchal Range or the Eastern Mountain Range comprises three parts: The Patkai- Bum Hill, The Garo-Khasi-Jaintia Hills and Lushai Hill (Mizo Hill). Mawsynram, in Meghalaya is the wettest place on Earth because of these hills and it lies in the Khasi Hill. This range covers all the eastern states of India, which are commonly known as the Seven Sisters. **1.10.4 The Satpura and Vindhaya Range:** The Satpura and Vindhaya Range lies in central India and both these ranges run parallel to each other. Out of these two, Satpura range is higher in length and is the source of rivers like Narmada and Tapti. Both Satpura and Vindhaya are mainly situated in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra with some extension to Gujarat, Chattisgarh and Uttar Pradesh. These ranges are famous for a large no of tourist spot like Panchmarhi Hill Station, Kanha National Park, Amarkantak and Omkareshwar temple. **1.10.5 The Aravalli Range: Aravalli translates to \'line of peaks ':** The oldest mountain range of India, The Aravalli Range is also the oldest mountain range in the world. Guru Shikhar is highest point of Aravalli Range with total elevation of 1722m. This range is famous for many tourist attractions and Mount Abu the only hill station in Rajasthan City of Udaipur also lies on its southern slope. City of Udaipur, which is also known as Venice of the East. Banas, Luni, and Sabarmati are the rivers that flow through this range. **1.10.6 The Western Ghats:** Western Ghats is 1600m long mountain range that runs from Gujrat to Kanyakumari in south India. It comprises the mountain range of Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Cardomom. Tapti River marks its beginning in Gujarat and Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri are the important rivers in this range. Famous tourist attractions include Jog falls, Ooty, Bandipur National Park. Western Ghats is one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites **1.10.7 The Eastern Ghats:** Eastern Ghats is mountain range running in eastern part of Indian Peninsula parallel to Bay of Bengal. The range runs through Indian states of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna and Kaveri fall into Bay of Bengal through Eastern Ghats. Vishakhapatnam and Bhubaneswar are important cities located in Eastern Ghats. **1.11 River System of India:** The rivers of India can be classified into four groups viz., Himalayan rivers, Deccan rivers, Coastal rivers, and Rivers of the inland drainage basin. The Himalayan Rivers are formed by melting snow and glaciers and therefore, continuously flow throughout the year. During the monsoon months, Himalayas receive very heavy rainfall and rivers swell, causing frequent floods. The Deccan Rivers on the other hand are rain fed and therefore fluctuate in volume. Many of these are non-perennial. The Coastal streams, especially on the west coast are short in length and have limited catchment areas. Most of them are non-perennial. The streams of inland drainage basin of western Rajasthan are few. Most of them are of an ephemeral character. **1.11.1 Himalayan Rivers** The Indus River System: It is one of the great rivers of the world, rises near Mansarovar in Tibet and flows through India, and thereafter through Pakistan, and finally falls in the Arabian Sea near Karachi. The length of the river in India is 800.75 km. out of total flow path of 2880 Kms. The main tributaries of the Indus in India are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. The principal tributaries of Brahmaputra in India are the Subansiri, Jia Bhareli, Dhansiri, Puthimari, Pagladiya and the Manas. The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna System: The Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glaciers in the Himalayas and the Alaknanda, join at Dev Prayag to form the Ganga. It travels through Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. Below Rajmahal hills, the Bhagirathi, which used to be the main course in the past, takes off, while the Padma continues eastward and enters Bangladesh. The length of the river is 2525 Kms. The Yamuna, the Ramganga, the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Kosi, the Mahananda and the Sone are the important tributaries of the Ganga. Rivers Chambal and Betwa are the important sub-tributaries that join Yamuna. The Brahmaputra River originates in the north from Kailash ranges of Himalayas, enters into India in Arunachal Pradesh under the name of Dihang and then combined with rivers Debang and Lohit runs all along the Assam valley. it flows for 916 km. in India out of total 2900 kms. length before entering into Bangladesh. The principal tributaries of Brahmaputra in India are the Subansiri, Jia Bhareli, Dhansiri, Puthimari, Pagladiya and the Manas. It ends into the Bay of Bengal. The Barak River, the Head stream of Meghna, rises in the hills in Manipur. The important tributaries of the river are Makku, Trang, Tuivai, Jiri, Sonai, Rukni, Katakhal, Dhaleswari, Langachini, Maduva and Jatinga. Barak continues in Bangladesh till the combined Ganga- Brahmaputra join it **1.11.2 Deccan River System** In the Deccan region, most of the major river systems flowing generally in east direction fall into Bay of Bengal. The major east flowing rivers are Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Mahanadi, etc. Narmada and Tapti are major West flowing rivers. The Narmada: The Narmada is a river in central India. It forms the traditional boundary between North India and South India, it rises on the summit of Amarkantak Hill in MP. Its total length through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat amounts to 1312 kilometres (815 miles), and it empties into the Arabian Sea in the Bharuch district of Gujarat. The Tapi: It rises in the eastern Satpura Range of southern MP. It flows a length of around 724 km via Deccan Plateau and South Gujarat before falling into the Arabian Sea, in the State of Gujarat. Godavari River System: The river with second longest course within India, Godavari is often referred to as the Vriddh (Old) Ganga or the Dakshin (South) Ganga. The river is about 1,450 km (900 miles) long. It rises at Trimbakeshwar, near Nasik & empties into the Bay of Bengal. Krishna River System: The Krishna is one of the longest rivers of India (about 1300 km in length). It originates from spout from the mouth of a statue of a cow at Mahabaleswar in Maharashtra and meets the sea in the Bay of Bengal at Hamasaladeevi in Andhra Pradesh. Kaveri River System: The source of the river is Talakaveri located in the Western Ghats.. It flows generally south and east for around 765 km, emptying into the Bay of Bengal through two principal mouths. The Mahanadi River System: The river rises in the Satpura Range of central India, and flows east to the Bay of Bengal. It has a length of about 860 km. Near the city of Sambalpur, a large dam - the Hirakud Dam - is built on the river. **1.11.3 Coastal River System** There are numerous coastal rivers, which are comparatively small. While only handful of such rivers drain into the sea near the delta of east coast, there are as many as 600 such rivers on the west coast. **1.11.4 Desert River System** A few rivers in Rajasthan do not drain into the sea. They drain into salt lakes and get lost in sand with no outlet to sea. Besides these, there are the Desert Rivers which flow for some distance and are lost in the desert. These are Luni and others such as, Machhu, Rupen, Saraswati, Banas, Ghaggar and others. **1.12 Desert Features of Thar Desert:** Deserts are arid regions with little or no vegetation, with annual precipitation totals of less than 25 cm and exceptionally high or low temperatures. Deserts can be either hot or chilly depending on the climate. Wherever there is little water available for cultivation, people inhibit those areas and practice agriculture. The Himalayan Region, which includes Ladakh in the state of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) and Kinnaur in the state of Himachal Pradesh (H.P.), is home to India's Cold Desert Cultural Landscape. India's Ladakh is a frigid and cold desert. **1.13 Coast Line of India** India has a very long coastline, and it measures about 7,516.6 km bordering the mainland and the islands with the Bay of Bengal in the East, the Indian Ocean on the South and the Arabian Sea on the West. The coastline is distributed among nine states and four union territories (UTs). Among the states, Gujarat has the longest coastline (1214.7 Km.) and among the UTs, Andaman and Nicobar Islands (1962 Km.) has the longest coastline. **1.14 Major Soil Types of India** In India, the Indian Council of Agricultural research (ICAR) has classified soils into 8 categories. Alluvial Soil Black Cotton Soil Red & Yellow Soil Laterite Soil Mountainous or Forest Soil Arid or Desert Soil Saline and Alkaline Soil Peaty and Marshy Soil **1.14.1 Alluvial Soils:** Alluvial Soils are widespread in the northern plains and river valleys & in deltas of the east coast and in the river valleys, sandy loam to clay, light grey to ash grey, rich in potassium good for growing wheat, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed, etc. **1.14.2 Black Cotton Soils:** It covers most of the Deccan Plateau -- parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu, deep black to grey, rich in Iron, lime, Aluminum, Magnesium & Potassium generally clayey, main crops are cotton, pulses, millets, castor, tobacco, sugarcane, citrus fruits, linseed, etc. **1.14.3 Red & Yellow Soil:** Red & Yellow Soil is found in regions of low rainfall (eastern and southern parts of the Deccan Plateau), parts of Odisha, long stretch of western Ghat and Chattisgarh and in the southern parts of the Middle Ganga Plain. Red color is due to iron, it looks yellow when hydrated, main crops grown are Wheat, cotton, oilseeds, millets, tobacco, and pulses etc. **1.14.4 Laterite Soil:** Laterite Soil are found in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and hilly regions of Assam and Odisha, rich in iron oxide and potash, red in color, well suited for tree crop cultivation like cashew nuts. hardens rapidly and irreversibly on exposure to the air, a property that leads to its use as building bricks in southern India. **1.14.5 Mountainous or Forest Soil:** Mountainous or Forest Soil is found in forest regions where rainfall is sufficient, texture is coarse-grained on upper side and loamy and silty on valley side, acidic with low humus content, soils found in the lower valleys are fertile. **1.14.6 Arid or Desert Soils:** Arid or Desert Soils are profoundly found in western Rajasthan also known as Desert Soil, colour red to brown, sandy to gravel, saline in nature and in certain regions, have in phosphorus but deficient in Nitrogen, the salt content is so high that common salt is obtained by evaporating water. **1.14.7 Saline and Alkaline Soils:** Saline and Alkaline Soils are mostly found in Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Maharashtra, western Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coast and in Sundarban areas of West Bengal. In the Rann of Kutch, the south-western monsoon brings salt particles and deposits there as a crust, sandy to loamy, due to high sodium, magnesium and potassium it is infertile but suitable for leguminous crops & berseem, dhaincha, etc. **1.14.8 Peaty and Marshy Soils** Peaty and Marshy Soils are found in regions of heavy rainfall and high humidity, is found in southern Uttarakhand, the northern part of Bihar, and the coastal areas of West Bengal, Odisha and Tamil Nadu, rich in humus and organic matter, heavy and black in colour, it supports the good growth of vegetation. **1.15 Natural Resources of India** India is gifted with a wide variety of Natural Resources such as fertile soil, forests, minerals and water. The Indian continent covers a multitude of biotic and abiotic resource. Biotic resources include forests and all forest products, crops, birds, animals, fish and other marine life forms. Abiotic resources include land, water and minerals e.g. iron, copper, gold and silver. India has a great variety of wildlife. Around 24.5 percent of the total geographical area include Forests (IFSR 2019) like Tropical, Swamps, Mangrove and Alpine. Forests are the main source of Fire woods, Paper, Spices, Drugs, Herbs, Gums and more. Forests has great contribution to nation's GDP. **1.15.1 Wildlife:** India possesses a great variety of wildlife. Out of a known world total of 1.05 million species of animals about 75,000 species (7.46%) are found in India. **1.15.2 Livestock:** India has about three fifths or 57 per cent of the world's buffalo population and about one-sixth or 15 per cent of the cattle population. India is the largest milk producer in the world. **1.15.3 Fisheries:** Reports of EIA estimate indicated that in Indian rivers more than 400 species of fish are found and many species are economically important. In all more than 1,800 distinct species of fish are known to exist in India. India has a variety of natural vegetation since the country has a varied relief and climate **1.16 Mineral Resources** India\'s major mineral resources include Coal (4th largest reserves in the world), In India, coal is obtained mostly from Andra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Meghalaya, Jammu and Kashmir. India has fourth rank in producing iron ore in the world. Manganese ore (7th largest reserve in the world as in 2013), Lithium ore (6th largest reserve in the world as in 2023) Mica, bauxite (5th largest reserve in the world as in 2013), Rich in Chromite, Diamonds, Limestone and Thorium. India had estimated crude oil reserves of 594.49 million tons (MT), Petroleum products can be obtained from Digboi, Assam, around the Gulf of Khambat in Gujarat, off shore in Arabian Sea, spread out from Mumbai up to 100miles. and natural gas reserves of 1339.57 billion cubic meters (BCM). An enormous mass of India's natural gas production comes from the western offshore regions, particularly the Mumbai High complex. The onshore fields in Assam, Andhra Pradesh, and Gujarat states are also main producers of natural gas. **1.17 Seasons & Weather** The climate of India consists of a wide range of weather conditions across a vast geographic scale and varied topography. Basically India exhibits six major climatic sub types, ranging from arid deserts in the west, glaciers in the north, humid tropical regions supporting rain forests in the southwest and the island territories. Many regions have starkly different micro climates, making it one of the most climatically diverse countries in the world. **Seasons of India** Spring Season Summer Season Monsoon Season Autumn Season Pre Winter Season Winter Season The Indian Meteorological Department categorizes India's climate into four seasons- Winter Season, Summer Season, Rainy Season, and Autumn Season. Seasons remind us that change is the law of nature and a sign of progress. In India, there are mainly six seasons as per the ancient Hindu calendar (the Lunisolar Hindu). The twelve months in a year are divided into six seasons of two-month duration each. These seasons include Vasant Ritu (Spring), Grishma Ritu (Summer), Varsha Ritu (Monsoon), Sharad Ritu (Autumn), Hemant Ritu (Pre-Winter) and Shishir Ritu (Winter). **1.17.1 Spring Season (Vasant Ritu):** The spring season in India is a season of two-month duration which are March & April. In the Hindu calendar, this season occurs in the months of Chaitra & Baisakh respectively. It is a pleasant and beautiful season with an average temperature, the trees shed their leaves, new leaves start appearing, colorful flowers start blooming. **1.17.2 Summer (Grishma Ritu):** It includes the months of May and June. As per the Hindu calendar, these are Jyeshta & Aashaadha. In this season, the weather is very hot in most of the parts of India. The days are longest in this season while the nights have the shortest duration. Due to the scorching sun temperature is very high exceeding 40 degree Celcius at some places. **1.17.3 Monsoon (Varsha Ritu):** It includes the months of July and August. As per the Hindu calendar, this season comes in the months of Shravana and Bhadrapada. During this season rainfall occurs in most of India. Because of the greenery spread everywhere, It is sometimes also called as 'Green season '. It's pleasant when it rains and sweaty humid when it does not rain. Rainbow may be observed after the rain is over. Abundance of insects, frogs and snakes is seen in this season. **1.17.4 Autumn (Sharad Ritu):** The season of autumn comes in the months of September & October. As per the Hindu calendar, this season comes in Ashwin & Kartik months. The hot and humid weather starts disappearing and leaves start falling off the trees in order to prepare the trees to stand in winters. The sky becomes clearer as compared to the monsoon. The insects and mites grew during monsoon gradually start disappearing with the arrival of autumn. **1.17.5 Pre-winter (Hemant Ritu):** This season is observed in the months of November & December. As per the Hindu calendar, these season occurs in the Agrahayana & Pausha. It starts somewhere with the end of October. It is the transition from autumn to winter and is moderately cold with shorter days & long cold nights. Sun seems to loose it's warmth. **1.17.6 Winter (Shishir):** The winter season in India comes in the months of January & February. As per the Hindu calendar, this season occurs in the months of Magha & Phalguna. This season lies between pre winter and spring season. This season is characterized by dryness, cold winds, occasional rainfall and snowfall. It is the coldest season of the year leaving below 0 degree at some places. **1.18 Agriculture & Major Crops** Two-thirds of India's population is engaged in agricultural activities. It is a primary activity, which produces food grains and raw materials for industries. India is geographically a vast country so it has various food and non-food crops which are cultivated in three main cropping seasons which are rabi, kharif and zaid. Major crops can be classified into- Food crops- Rice, Wheat, Millets, Maize and Pulses. Cash crops- Sugarcane, Oilseeds, Horticulture crops, Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Cotton and Jute. **Cropping Seasons** **Rabi Crop:** Is sown in October- December and Harvested in April-June. Major crops are Wheat, barley, peas, gram, mustard etc. Mainly grown in Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh **Kharif Crop:** Is Sown in June- July and Harvested in September- October, Major Crops are Rice, maize, jowar, bajra, tur, moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut, soybean etc. Mainly grown in Assam, West Bengal, coastal regions of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharashtra **Zaid Crop:** Is sown and harvested in March-July (between Rabi and Kharif), major crops are Seasonal fruits, vegetables, fodder crops etc. Mainly grown in Most of the northern and northwestern states. **For more studies:** 1\. Mahadevan, B., Rajat Bhai, Vinayak & Nagendra Pavana, R.N., "Introduction to Indian Knowledge System". 2\. Jha, Amit, "Traditional Knowledge System in India". 3\. Contemporary India Part - 2 Textbook in Geography for Class - 10 4\. NCERT Social Studies Book class IX 5\. NCERT Social Studies Book class X 6\. Ancient India By M. Lal **Web references:** Timeline of Indian history -- Wikipedia https://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/concepts/ashramas.asp https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samskara\_(rite\_of\_passage) https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/education/indian-education/top-9-educational-rituals- sanskaras-observed-during-ancient-india/63499 https://prezi.com/p/3ym4n-rea1y9/aaron-ancient-india-job-specialization/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate\_of\_India https://www.drishtiias.com/to-the-points/paper3/cropping-patterns-and-major-crops-of- india-part-one