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This chapter discusses various management theories focusing on employee motivation. It covers key concepts like Maslow's hierarchy of needs, McClelland's acquired needs, and expectancy theory. The chapter also explores job design approaches and the importance of employee satisfaction and motivation.
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Chapter 12 - Management - Content perspectives - Theories that emphasize the needs that motivate people. - Needsare defined as physiological deficiencies that arouse behavior. - hey can be strong or weak, and because they are influenced by environmental factors...
Chapter 12 - Management - Content perspectives - Theories that emphasize the needs that motivate people. - Needsare defined as physiological deficiencies that arouse behavior. - hey can be strong or weak, and because they are influenced by environmental factors, T they can vary overtime from place to place. - In addition to McGregor’s Theory X/Theory Y, content perspectives include four theories: - Maslow’shierarchy of needs - McClelland’sacquired needs theory - Deci and Ryan’sself determination theory - Herzberg’stwo-factor theory - Hierarchy of needs theory: People are motivated by five levels of needs 1. Physiological a. Most basic human physical needs - need for food, clothing, shelter, etc. 2. Safety - Need for physical safety, emotional security, job security, health. 3. Love - Need for friendship, affection, acceptance. 4. Esteem - Need for self-respect, status, reputation, recognition, self-confidence. 5. Self-Actualization - Need for self fulfillment: Increasing competence, using abilities to the fullest. Basic needs must be met before we attend to psychological needs. Using the hierarchy of needs theory to motivate employees - esearch does not clearly support Maslow’s theory. R - Physiological and safety needs are still a necessary foundation. - Maslow’s work paved the way for organizations to strategize how they can improve their employees’ overall well being. - There’s no one best way to motivate all employees. cClelland’sacquired needs theory - States that three needs - achievement, affiliation, and M power - are major motives determining people’s behavior in the workplace. . N 1 eeds are learned 2. One need often dominates 3. Need for achievement - “I need to excel at tasks.” a. Working on challenging, but not impossible, tasks or projects. b. Being rewarded for their efforts. 4. Need for affiliation - “I need close relationships.” a. S eek social approval and satisfying personal relationships may have a high need for affiliation. b. Tend to prefer work, such as sales, that provides for personal relationships and social 5. Need for power - “I need to control others.” a. People who have a high need for power are more likely to enjoy b. Being in control of people and events and being recognized for this responsibility c. Work that allows them to control or have an effect on people and be publicly recognized for their accomplishments. Self determination theory assumes that people are driven to try to grow and attain fulfillment, with their behavior and well being influenced by three universal needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Focus on intrinsic motivation - Intrinsic motivation is longer lasting than extrinsic motivation. - Has a more positive impact on task performance than extrinsic motivation. The three innate needs 1. Competence- “I want to feel a sense of mastery” 2. Autonomy- “I want to feel independent and able to influence my environment” 3. Relatedness- “I want to feel connected to other people” Using self-determination theory to motivate employees ompetence -Managers can provide tangible resources, time, contacts, mentoring, and C coaching to improve employee competence, making sure that employees have the knowledge and information they need to perform their jobs. utonomy -To enhance feelings of autonomy, managers can develop trust with and empower A their employees by delegating meaningful tasks to them and encouraging them to use their best judgement. Relatedness -Camaraderie. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory: 1. J ob satisfaction was more frequently associated with achievement, recognition, characteristics of the work, responsibility and advancement. 2. Job dissatisfaction was more often associated with working conditions, pay and security, company policies, supervisors, and interpersonal relationships. Motivating factors - More important - “What will make my people satisfied?” Hygiene factors: - Less important - “What will make my people dissatisfied?” Equity/Justice Theory - How fairly do you think you’re being treated in relation to others? - Equity theory is a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give and take relationships. - quity theory is based on cognitive dissonance - the psychological discomfort people E experience between their cognitive attitudes and incompatible behaviors. - Key elements in equity theory are outcomes, inputs, and comparisons. Outcomes - What do you think you’re getting out of the job? Inputs - What do you think you’re putting into the job? Comparison - How do you think your ratio of outcomes and inputs compares with those others? Using equity theory to motivate employees Employees who feel they are being under rewarded will: - Reduce their inputs - Try to change the outcomes or rewards they receive - Cognitively distort the inequity Employees who think they are treated fairly - More likely to support organizational change 3 different components of organizational justice istributive justice - How fair are the rewards that are being given out? - Reflects the perceived D fairness of the outcomes being distributed or allocated among employees. rocedural justice - How fair is the process for handing out rewards - defined as the perceived P fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions. Interactional justice - How fair is the treatment I receive when rewards are given out? - Relates to how organizational representatives treat employees in the process of implementing procedures and making decisions. Using equity and justice theories to motivate employees - akes you a better manager M - Makes you a better co-worker . E 1 mployee perceptions are what count 2. Employees want a voice in decisions that affect them a. V oice is defined as employees’ expression of work-related concerns, ideas, and/or constructive suggestions to managers. 3. Employees should be given an appeals process 4. Leader behavior matters 5. A climate for justice makes a difference a. Justice climate relates to the shared sense of fairness felt by the entire workgroup. i. Increased job satisfaction and organizational commitment ii. More helping behaviors iii. Enhanced job performance Expectancy theory -Boils down to deciding how much effort to exert in a specific task situation. The three elements: Expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. 1. E xpectancy is the belief that a particular level of effort will lead to a particular level of performance 2. Instrumentality is the expectation that successful performance of the task will lead to the outcome desired. 3. Valence is value, the importance a worker assigns to the possible outcome or reward. oal-setting theory- Suggests that employees can be motivated by goals that are specific and G challenging but achievable. The four motivational mechanisms of goal setting theory 1. Direct attention: Goal setting directs your attention toward goal-relevant tasks and away from irrelevant ones. 2. Regulate effort: The effort you expend is generally proportional to the goal’s difficulty and time deadlines. 3. Increase persistence: Goal setting makes obstacles challenges to be overcome, not reasons to fail. 4. Foster the use of strategies and action plans: The use of strategies and action plans make it more likely that you will realize success. Stretch goals - Goals beyond what they actually expect to achieve. Rationales include - Forcing people out of their comfort zones to achieve more - Building employees’ confidence when they succeed. - Insulating the company against future setbacks. - Accepting the challenge of higher performance standards. Goal - An objective that a person is trying to accomplish through their efforts. . G 1 oals should be specific 2. Certain conditions are necessary for goal setting to work . Goals should be linked to action plans. 3 SMART: specific, measurable, attainable, results-oriented, and have target dates. Job design is (1) the division of an organization’s work among its employees and (2) the application of motivational theories to jobs to increase satisfaction and performance. here are two different approaches to job design—one traditional, one modern—that can be T taken in deciding how to design jobs. The traditional way is fitting people to jobs; the modern way is fitting jobs to people.88 - itting people to jobs is based on the assumption that people will gradually adapt to any F work situation. - ne technique is scientific management - the process of reducing the number of tasks a O worker performs. itting jobs to people is based on the assumption that people are underutilized at work and that F they want more variety, challenges, and responsibility. Two techniques for this type of job design are (1) job enlargement and (2) job enrichment. he opposite of scientific management,job enlargementconsists of T increasing the number of tasks in a job to increase variety and motivation.For instance, the job of installing flatscreens in television sets could be enlarged to include installation of the circuit boards as well. Three important points about job enlargement: P roponents claim job enlargement can improve employee satisfaction, motivation, and quality of production. Research suggests job enlargement by itself won’t have a significant and lasting positive effect on job performance. After all, working at two boring tasks instead of one doesn’t add up to a challenging job. Job enlargement is just one tool of many that should be considered in job design ob enrichment is the practical application of Herzberg’s two-factor J motivator–hygiene theory of job satisfaction.91 Specifically,job enrichmentconsists of building into a job such motivating factors as responsibility, achievement, recognition, stimulating work, and advancement. eveloped by researchers J. Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham, the job D characteristics model of design is an outgrowth of job enrichment.94 Thejob characteristics modelconsists of F ive core job characteristics that affect Three psychological states of an employee, that in turn affect Work outcomes—the employee’s motivation, performance, satisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover. Five job characteristics 1. Skill variety - How many different skills does your job require? 2. Take identity - How many different tasks are required to complete the work? 3. Task significance - How many other people are affected by your job? 4. Autonomy - How much discretion does your job give you? 5. Feedback - How much do you find out how well you’re doing? How the Model Works According to the job characteristics model: T he five core characteristics affect a worker’s motivation because they affect three psychological states (refer toFigure12.9again): 1. Meaningfulness of work. 2. Responsibility for results. 3. Knowledge of results. I n turn, these positive psychological states fuel important outcomes, includinghigh motivation,high performance,high satisfaction,andlow absenteeism and turnover. pplying the Job Characteristics A Model There are three major steps to follow when applying the model. D iagnose the work environment to see whether a problem exists.This typically involves calculatinga job’s s o-called motivating potential score (MPS)—the potential for a specific job to influence workers’ motivation levels and job behaviors.98 Determine whether job redesign is appropriate.Ifthe MPS is low, an attempt should be made to determine which of the core job characteristics is causing the problem. You should next decide whether job redesign is appropriate. Job design is most likely to work in a participative environment in which employees have the necessary knowledge and skills. Consider how to redesign the job.Here you try toincrease those core job characteristics that are problematic. Relational Job Design hereas the job characteristics model focuses on designing tasks to spur W possessive: employees’ interest in the work itself, relational job design focuses on designing the relational aspects of work to increase employees’prosocial motivation,or the desire to benefit others. esearcher and author, Adam Grant, pioneered work on relational job design R with a series of studies demonstrating the power of prosocial motivation.100 His perspective generated much research. For example, a recent meta-analysis of 201 studies and over 45,000 respondents showed that prosocial motivation improved employees’prosocial behavior, well-being, performance,and career success.101 Figure 12.10shows that prosocial motivation has astrong impact on employees’ relational behaviors, a moderate influence on well-being and performance outcomes, and a weak effect on career success. These results reveal that prosocial motivation pays dividends for the employee and the recipients of their effort (beneficiaries). hy Is Prosocial Motivation W Beneficial? esearch points to five ways prosocial motivation delivers positive outcomes for R employees:102 1. Social capital.Prosocial motivation signals concern for others’ well-being. Co-workers thus tend to trust and respect prosocially motivated employees and see them as having more leadership potential. 2.Working harder.People work harder when their workbenefits others for two reasons: for fear of letting others down and for the anticipation others will be grateful for their efforts. 3.Working smarter.Prosocially motivated employees gatherand analyze information from multiple perspectives resulting in more creative ideas. 4.Working together.Prosocial motivation prompts employeesto share information with others and learn from them in the process. 5.Working safer.Prosocially motivated employees engagein less risky behaviors. Authors Grant and Shandell observe “when focusing on how our actions affect others who are vulnerable, we are more realistic about risk.”103 he reinforcement perspective, which was pioneered by Edward L. Thorndike T and B. F. Skinner, is concerned with how consequences affect behavior.106 Two ideas form the foundation of the reinforcement perspective: 1. S kinner’s concept ofoperant conditioning—the processof controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences, which is rooted in Thorndike’s law of effect. 2. Thorndike’slaw of effectsays behavior with favorable consequences tends to be repeated, while behavior with unfavorable consequences tends to disappear.107 rom these underpinnings arosereinforcement theory,which attempts to F explain behavior change by suggesting that behavior with positive consequences tends to be repeated, whereas behavior with negative consequences tends not to be repeated.The use ofreinforcement theory to change human behavior is calledbehavior modification. he Four Types of T Behavior Modification: Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, Extinction, and Punishment einforcementis anything that strengthens the likelihoodthat a given R behavior will be repeated in the future. here are four types of behavior modification: (1)positive reinforcement,(2) T negative reinforcement,(3)extinction,and (4)punishment(seeFigure 12.11). ositive Reinforcement: Strengthens P Behavior ositive reinforcementis the introduction of positiveconsequences to P strengthen the likelihood that a particular behavior will occur again in the future. egative Reinforcement: Also N Strengthens Behavior egative reinforcementis removal of a negative stimulusto strengthen N the likelihood that a particular behavior will occur again in the future. Extinction: Weakens Behavior xtinctiondecreases the likelihood that a particularbehavior will occur E again in the future by ignoring it or making sure it is not reinforced. Punishment: Also Weakens Behavior unishmentdecreases the likelihood that a behaviorwill occur again in P the future by presenting something negative or withdrawing something positive. sing Behavior U Modification to Motivate Employees he following are some guidelines for using two types of behavior T modification—positive reinforcementandpunishment. Positive Reinforcement everal aspects of positive reinforcement should be part of your S managerial toolkit: R eward only desirable behavior.You should give rewardsto your employees only when they showdesirablebehavior.Thus, f or example, you should give praise to employees not for showing up for work on time (an expected part of any job) but for showing up early. Give rewards as soon as possible.You should givea reward as soon as possible after the desirable behavior appears. Thus, you should give praise to early-arriving employees as soon as they arrive, not later in the week. Be clear about what behavior is desired.Clear communication is everything. You should tell employees exactly what kinds of work behaviors are desirable and what they must do to earn rewards. Have different rewards to recognize individual differences.Recognizing that different people valuedifferent kinds of rewards, you should give employees a choice in selecting rewards that meet their needs. Punishment nquestionably there will be times when you’ll need to threaten or administer an U unpleasant consequence to stop an employee’s undesirable behavior. Sometimes it’s best to address a problem by combining punishment with positive reinforcement. Some suggestions for using punishment are as follows. P unish only undesirable behavior.You should give punishment only when employees show frequentundesirable behavior. For example, you should reprimand employees who consistently show up, say, a half hour late for work but not 5 or 10 minutes late. Give reprimands or disciplinary actions as soon as possible.You should mete out punishment as soon aspossible after the undesirable behavior occurs. Thus, you should give a reprimand to late-arriving employees as soon as they arrive. Be clear about what behavior is undesirable.Tell employees exactly what kinds of work behaviors are undesirable and make sure the severity of the punishment fits the crime. A anager should not, for example, dock hourly employees’ pay if m they are only 5 or 10 minutes late for work. Asking them to stay 10 minutes late might be more appropriate. Administer punishment in private.You would hate tohave your boss chew you out in front of your employees, and the people who report to you also shouldn’t be reprimanded publicly. Public reprimands are embarrassing and fuel resentment. Combine punishment and positive reinforcement.If you’re reprimanding employees, be sure to redirect their attention to desirable behavior and remind them what rewards they might be eligible for. For example, while reprimanding someone for being late, say that a perfect attendance record over the next few months will put that employee in line for a raise or promotion. e then turn our attention to nonmonetary incentives because employees often W choose jobs for reasons other than financial compensation. Numerous research studies support the notion that workers can be equally, and sometimes even more, motivated by:112 1. Work-life balance. 2. Personal growth. 3. A positive work environment. 4. Meaningful work. oney still motivates, but it’s not the only thing or even the most M important thing. A meta-analysis of 61 studies and over 18,000 respondents reveals pay is only minimally related with job satisfaction. The study’s authors note “in 2009 dollars, a sample of lawyers earning an average of $148,000 per year was less job satisfied than a sample of child care workers earning $23,500 per year.” haracteristics of the Best Incentive C Compensation Plans onsistent with most of the theories of motivation we described earlier, certain C criteria are advisable for incentive plans to work, such as: 1. Rewards must be linked to performance and be measurable. 2. Rewards must satisfy individual needs. 3. Rewards must be agreed on by manager and employees. 4. Rewards must be believable and achievable by employees. opular Incentive Compensation P Plans I n what way would you like to be rewarded for your efforts? Some of the most well-known incentive compensation plans arepay forperformance,bonuses, profit sharing,gainsharing,stock options,andpayfor knowledge. Pay for Performance lso known asmerit pay,pay for performancebasespay on one’s A results.Thus, different salaried employees mightget different pay raises and other rewards (such as promotions) depending on their overall job performance. Examples of pay-for-performance plans include: P iece rate.One standard pay-for-performance planis payment according to apiece rate,in which employees arepaid according to how much output they produce,as is often used with farm workers picking fruits or vegetables. Piece-rate employers must comply with state and federal minimum wage laws.115 Sales commission.With asales commissionplan, sales representatives are paid a percentage of the earnings the company made from their sales, so that the more they sell, the more they are paid.The financial services company Edward Jones pays its employees a salary plus commissions on sales for the first four years and then c ommissions only, on a scale that increases from 9% to 40% over time. Bonuses onusesare cash awards given to employees who achieve specific B performance objectives.Signing bonusesare also a popular way to attract new employees, particularly in tight labor markets. Profit Sharing rofit sharingis the distribution to employees ofa percentage of the P company’s profits. Gainsharing ainsharingis the distribution of savings or “gains”to groups of G employees who reduced costs and increased measurable productivity. Gainsharing has been applied in a variety of industries, from manufacturing to nonprofit. It incentivizes employees to proactively improve the company’s operations (such as productivity, quality, safety, customer satisfaction, or costs).119 Stock Options ithstock options,certain employees are given theright to buy the W company’s stock at a future date at a discounted price.The motivator here is that employees holding stock options will work hard to make the company’s stock rise so that they can profit by obtaining it at the cheaper price. Pay for Knowledge lso known asskill-based pay,pay for knowledgetiesemployee pay to the A number of job-relevant skills or academic degrees they earn.124 onmonetary Ways of N Motivating Employees mployees who can demonstrate the career readiness competencies of E self-motivation, critical thinking/problem solving, and ownership/accepting responsibilities are apt to be the very ones who will leave if they find their own needs aren’t being met. Four nonmonetary motivators employees crave are (1) work-life balance, (2) personal growth, (3) a positive work environment, and (4) meaningful work. As you read on, consider which nonmonetary motivators would be most valuable to you right now. What kind of needs do they meet: basic, psychological, or self-fulfillment needs? The Need for Work-Life Balance 1.Define work priorities.Everything can’t always getdone. Establish what’s most important. 2.Reevaluate meetings.Avoid meetings early Monday orlate Friday to give employees an on-ramp and off-ramp for the work week. 3.Emphasize chunks of focus time during the week to get things done.Protect them by blocking off time inyour calendar so others know you aren’t available. 4.Encourage time away for vacation, mental health, and well-being.Cover employees’ work while they’re awayso they aren’t punished with a mountain of work when they return. 5.Respect “quiet hours.”Use technology to delay sending after-hours e-mails until the beginning of the next workday. Sending late night e-mails can create stress for others and communicate an expectation that they should always be “on.” Work-Life Benefits ork-life benefitsconsist of initiatives and programs that employers W implement in an effort to help employees balance the often competing needs of their work and home lives.127 The purposeof such benefits is to meet employees’ basic needs by removing barriers that make it hard for people to strike a balance between their work and personal lives, such as allowing parents time off to take care of sick children. Work-life benefits include: H elping employees with day care costs or even establishing onsite centers. Access to mental health services. Offering domestic-partner benefits. Giving job-protected leave for new parents. Free or reduced gym memberships. Providing technology, such as mobile phones and laptops, to enable parents to work at home. ow do U.S. employers compare globally at making work-life benefits available? H The United States actually ranks fairly low on this feature—29th out of 41 on a list of countries with the best work-life balance. lexible work arrangementsgive employees alternatives regarding when F and where work is done. Flexible work arrangements include flex time, part-time work, a compressed workweek, job sharing, and telecommuting (or working remotely). The top companies in the world offering flexible work arrangements in 2023 included Prolific, TELUS International, Virgin Media O2, and Mars UK. The Need for Personal Growth ccording to a recent survey, 76% of employees would stay with a company A longer if they had opportunities for continuous learning and development.133 You may recall fromChapter 9that L&D is so valuableto employees because it is an important step in career advancement. Learning opportunities can take three forms: L earning from co-workers.Managers can match workers with co-workers from whom they can learn, allowing them, for instance, to “shadow” (watch and imitate) workers in other jobs or participate in interdepartmental task forces. Tuition reimbursement.Being reimbursed for partialor full tuition for part-time study at a college or university. In-house training.According toTrainingmagazine,U.S. companies spent $101.6 billion on employee learning and development in 2022.134 Due to technology advancesduring the COVID-19 pandemic, instructor-led classrooms have been replaced by online and blended training methods as the dominant mode of training. Here’s the breakdown of the methods organizations used to deliver employee training hours: he Need for a Positive Work T Environment anting to work in a positive environment begins with the idea of well-being. W Well-beingis the combined impact of five elements—positiveemotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and achievement (PERMA), according to renowned psychologist Martin Seligman.135 There is one essential thing to remember about these elements: We must pursue them for their own sake, not as a means to obtain another outcome. In other words, well-being comes about by freely pursuing the five elements in PERMA. lourishingrepresents the extent to which our livescontain PERMA. F When we flourish, our lives result in “goodness... growth, and resilience.” P ositive physical settings.Cubicles are stiflingthe creativity and morale of many workers and fueling their resistance to return to the office after a period of working from home. McKinsey notes “people are going to return to the workplace only if the space is safe, comfortable, easy to navigate, invites collaboration, and offers a ‘wow’ factor.”150 Companieslike AT&T nd Adobe are investing billions of dollars to redesign their a workplace to meet employees’ desire for quiet and private work spaces to focus coupled with separate flexible meeting spaces that encourage collaboration and innovation.151 Thoughtful bosses.Managers significantly impact thework environment, which influences employees’ engagement at work. Leadership development consultants Zenger Folkman analyzed data from 13,048 direct reports who rated 2,801 managers and found that managers had a substantial impact on employees’ quiet quitting,or willingness to give only the minimumeffort to keep their job. Managers who created an unsupportive work environment had nearly three times more employees who were quiet quitters than managers who created supportive and inspiring work environments. On the flip side, consider that 62% of employees were willing to go the extra mile for managers who created supportive work environments whereas only 20% did the same for managers responsible for creating an unsupportive work environment. eaningfulness,then, is characterized by a senseof being part of M something you believe is bigger than yourself.157 What follows are three suggestions for building meaning into your life. 1. Identify activities you love doing.Try to do more of these activities or find ways to build them into your work role, something Mike Krzyzewski (Coach K) has done. 2. Passion Example—Coach K:Forty-two year head coach of uke University’s men’s college basketball team and all-time D winningest coach in NCAA Division I history, Coach K loved his family, basketball, and his players. His love for all three fueled unprecedented success at the collegiate level, six gold medals, and a 75–1 win–loss record as head coach of the U.S.A. Basketball Men’s National Team.158 3.Find a way to build your natural strengths into your personal and work-life.Want to be more engaged with your school, work, and leisure activities? Take the time to list your ighest strengths, your weaknesses, which strengths you use on a h daily basis—and find what you can do to incorporate your strengths into your school, work, and leisure activities. Gallup research suggests employees who use their strengths every day on the job are six times more likely to be highly engaged at work.159 4.Go out and help someone.Research shows that people derive a sense of meaningfulness from helping others, which creates an upward spiral of positivity he Self-Management T Process . Identify Your “Wildly Important” 1 Long-Term Goal our goal can be as long term as a personal vision statement or as short Y term as getting a job after graduation that fits your needs and values and pays a decent salary. T he wildly important goal is your “north star” or guiding purpose. Writing it down is a reminder of how you should spend your time in both the short and long term. State your wildly important goal in terms of the SMART framework we discussed inChapter 5. . Break Your Wildly Important Goal 2 into Short-Term Goals esearch tells us you are more likely to achieve your wildly important R goal if you break it down into smaller bite-size goals. For example, if your most important long-term goal is to get a good job after graduation, this step entails identifying the major milestones you must accomplish to make that happen. They might include outcomes like: aintain a GPA of 3.0. M Increase my career readiness. Obtain an internship. Become a student leader in one organization. Gain work experience in my functional field of study. Network with professionals in my field of study. . Create a “To-Do” List for 3 Accomplishing Your Short-Term Goals “to-do” list identifies the daily activities needed to achieve your A short-term goals. It is your detailed plan for achieving them. You may want to use task management software to help create and organize your t asks. For example, one of your authors has a “higher-level” task list that spans outcomes he wants to achieve for the next year. He then creates more immediate task lists every month that guide his behavior. 4. Prioritize the Tasks “to-do” list can get overwhelming if you don’t organize it. Organize by A prioritizing the tasks in the order in which you need to complete them. P rioritizing in this way enables you to schedule your time to maximize your efficiency and smooth your achievement of interdependent tasks. There is one common error to avoid during this step. Research shows that people tend to work on “easy to complete” tasks rather than harder ones as a task list grows. This strategy actually makes you less productive because easier tasks are generally not as important as more difficult or time-consuming tasks.163 One useful suggestion is to rank the tasks from (1) low importance to (5) high importance. 5. Create a Time Schedule I t’s time to establish start and stop dates for each task once you have made your task list. Dates enable you to organize your schedule and monitor your progress. Here again you may find it useful to employ task management software. . Work the Plan, Reward Yourself, 6 and Adjust as Needed he best-laid plans generally have unforeseen inhibitors like illness, a car T breakdown, or a crashed computer. Be flexible while working on your task plan. Finally, make the process fun by rewarding yourself for achieving various milestones. The reward should be something you v alue. One of your authors uses golf as his reward for completing his designated tasks. . Figure Out What Recharging 1 Means to You hen your smartphone or watch battery gets low, you have to put it on W the charger and wait. There is no other solution—your devices have one and only one way to get their power back. But people are not devices, and the way we recharge is unique to us as individuals. he trick is to figure out what recharging looks like for you. For example, T for your author who happens to be an extravert, recharging means being social and interacting with people, whether by throwing a party for 30 friends, playing in a golf tournament, or taking a group Pilates class. For another author who is decidedly introverted, recharging means being as far from most people as possible. She prefers having time at home in order to feel refreshed, and this might include a Netflix binge, an evening of food and drinks with immediate family or one or two close friends, or spending a weekend giving a closet the full KonMari treatment. Another author who is a self-described extraverted introvert recharges by attending sporting events, engaging in physical activity like running and playing tennis, and making memories with the immediate family. Page 462 on’t feel guilty about doing what you need in order to recharge. Your D iPhone doesn’t apologize for needing to be plugged into the charger—and neither should you. . Include Mental and Physical 2 Relaxation emember that recharging includes both mental and physical elements. R Your body may be suffering the physical effects of stress even if you don’t i mmediately feel it. One way to relax both your mind and body is through mindfulness meditation. 3. Accept Kindness ften, we feel the need to prove to others that we can take care of O everything on our own. Unfortunately, this can result in turning down offers of help and kindness. Maybe you have a friend who has offered to pet-sit for the weekend so that you can go on a camping trip. Or perhaps you know someone in massage therapy school who is looking for opportunities to practice their technique. Whatever they may be, remember to accept offers of kindness that will bring you joy and relaxation. Give yourself permission to be taken care of. 12.1 Motivating for Performance M otivation is defined as the psychological processes that arouse and direct goal-directed behavior. In a simple model of motivation, people have certain needs that motivate them to perform specific behaviors for which they receive rewards that feed back and satisfy the original need. Rewards are of two types: (1) extrinsic and (2) intrinsic. Four major perspectives on motivation are (1) content, (2) process, (3) job design, and (4) reinforcement. 2.2 Content Perspectives on Employee 1 Motivation C ontent perspectives or need-based perspectives emphasize the needs that motivate people. Besides McGregor Theory X/Theory Y (Chapter 2), need-based perspectives include (1) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, (2) McClelland’s acquired needs theory, ( 3) Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory, and (4) Herzberg’s two-factor theory. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory proposes that people are motivated by five levels of need. McClelland’s acquired needs theory states that three needs are major motives determining people’s behavior in the workplace. Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory assumes that people are driven to try to grow and attain fulfillment, with their behavior and well-being influenced by three innate needs. Herzberg’s two-factor theory proposes that work satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different factors: work satisfaction from so-called motivating factors, and work dissatisfaction from so-called hygiene factors. 2.3 Process Perspectives on Employee 1 Motivation P rocess perspectives are concerned with the thought processes by which people decide how to act. Three process perspectives on motivation are (1) equity theory, (2) expectancy theory, and (3) goal-setting theory. Equity theory focuses on employee perceptions as to how fairly they think they are being treated compared with others. The key elements in equity theory are inputs, outputs (rewards), and comparisons. Equity theory has expanded into an area called organizational justice, which is concerned with the extent to which people perceive they are treated fairly at work. Three different components of organizational justice ave been identified: (1) distributive justice, (2) h procedural justice, and (3) interactional justice. Expectancy theory is based on three concepts: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence of rewards. Goal-setting theory suggests that employees can be motivated by goals that are specific and challenging but achievable and linked to action plans. 2.4 Job Design Perspectives on 1 Motivation J ob design is, first, the division of an organization’s work among its employees, and second, the application of motivational theories to jobs to increase satisfaction and performance. Two approaches to job design are fitting people to jobs (the traditional approach) and fitting jobs to people (the modern approach). Two techniques for fitting jobs to people include (1) job enlargement and (2) job enrichment. An outgrowth of job enrichment is the job characteristics model, which consists of (1) five core job characteristics that affect (2) three critical psychological states of an employee that in turn affect (3) work outcomes—the employee’s motivation, performance, and satisfaction. The five core job characteristics are (1) skill variety, (2) task identity, (3) task significance, (4) autonomy, and (5) feedback. Relational job design focuses on designing the relational aspects of work to increase employees’ prosocial motivation. 2.5 Reinforcement Perspectives on 1 Motivation R einforcement theory attempts to explain behavior change by suggesting that behavior with positive consequences tends to be repeated, whereas behavior with negative consequences tends not to be repeated. Reinforcement is anything that causes a given behavior to be repeated. The use of reinforcement theory to change human behavior is called behavior modification. There are four types of behavior modification: (1) positive reinforcement, (2) negative reinforcement, (3) extinction, and (4) punishment. 2.6 Using Compensation, Nonmonetary 1 Incentives, and Other Rewards to Motivate C ompensation is one form of work motivator. Popular incentive compensation plans are (1) pay for performance, (2) bonuses, (3) profit sharing, (4) gainsharing, (5) stock options, and (6) pay for knowledge. There are also nonmonetary ways of compensating employees. Some employees will leave because they feel the need for work-life balance, the need to grow, the need for a positive work environment, and the need for meaningful work. To retain such employees, nonmonetary incentives have been introduced, such as work-life benefits, flexible work arrangements, and vacation/sabbatical time. 2.7 Career Corner: Managing Your Career 1 Readiness S elf-motivation is increased by applying the six steps of self-management. The six steps of self-management include the following: (1) Identify your wildly important long-term goal. (2) Break your wildly important goal into short-term goals. (3) Create a “to-do” list for accomplishing your short-term goals. (4) Prioritize the tasks you need to complete. (5) Create a time schedule for completing tasks. (6) Work the plan, reward yourself, and adjust as needed. Self-motivation also requires recharging. Chapter 14 - Management eadershipis the ability to influence employees tovoluntarily pursue L organizational goals.10 Leadershipis a broad term,as this definition implies. It can describe a formal position in an organization, which usually carries a title like CEO or CFO, or an informal role, such as that played by an expert whose opinion we value in some area. lthough not everyone is instinctively a good leader, evidence shows that people A can be trained to be more effective leaders.11 Inresponse, more companies are using management development programs to build a pipeline of leadership talent. They also provide leadership coaching to targeted employees.Leadership coachingis the process of enhancing a leader’s skills,abilities, and competencies in order to help the organization achieve its goals.12 It is estimated that U.S. companies spent over $20 billion on coaching in 2022.13 hat Is the Difference W between Leading and Managing? eading and managing are two interconnected but distinct concepts. Let’s clarify L their differences first. Broadly speaking: L eadersfocus on influencing others. They inspireothers, provide emotional support, and rally employees around a common goal. Leaders also play a key role increatinga visionand strategic plan for an organization. Managerstypically perform functions associated withplanning, organizing, directing, and controlling. Managers, in turn, are charged withimplementingthe vision and plan. BEING A MANAGER MEANS... BEING A LEADER MEANS... lanning, organizing, directing, P Being visionary. controlling. xecuting plans and delivering goods E eing inspiring, setting the tone, B and services. and articulating the vision. Managing resources. Managing people. Being conscientious. Being inspirational (charismatic). Acting responsibly. Acting decisively. utting customers first—responding to P utting people first—responding to P and acting for customers. and acting for followers. istakes can happen when managers M istakes can happen when leaders M don’t appreciate people are the key choose the wrong goal, direction, or resource, underlead by treating people inspiration; overlead; or fail to like other resources, or fail to be held implement the vision. accountable. oping with complexity—complex C oping with change—organizations C organizations are chaotic without good need leadership to direct the management. constant change necessary for urvival in today’s dynamic business s landscape. We can draw several conclusions from this division of labor:16 1. People are led. Tasks are managed. 2. Effective leadership requires managerial skills.Leaders who don’t know how to manage tasks can relate well with others but don’t get much done. 3. The most effective managers develop leadership skills. Managers who don’t possess leadership skills can get things done themselves but have difficulty multiplying their effectiveness by getting things done through others. 4. The right mix of leading and managing depends on the situation.Some situations call for more leading thanmanaging whereas others call for more managing than leading. We’ll talk about that more in the behavioral (Section 14.3) andsituational approaches (Section 14.4) to leadership. anagerial M Leadership: Can You BeBotha Manager and a Leader? bsolutely. The latest thinking is that individuals are able to exhibit a broad array A of the contrasting behaviors shown inTable 14.1(aconcept calledparadoxical leadership).17 Thus, in the workplace, many peopleare capable of engaging in managerial leadership,which involves both influencingfollowers to internalize and commit to a set of shared goals, and facilitating the group and individual work that is needed to accomplish those goals.18 Here, the “influencing” part is leadership and the “facilitating” part is management. Page 504 anagerial leadership may be demonstrated not only by managers appointed to M their positions, but also by those who exercise leadership on a daily basis but don’t carry formal management titles (such as certain co-workers on a team). Six Sources of Power oweris the ability to marshal human, informational,and other P resources to get something done.Defined this way,power is all about influencing others. The more influence you have, the more powerful you are, and vice versa. o really understand leadership, we need to understand the concept of power and T authority.Authorityis the right to perform or command;it comes with the job. In contrast,poweris the extent to which a person isable to influence others so they respond to requests. eople who pursuepersonalized power—power directed at helping P oneself—as a way of enhancing their own selfish ends may give the word power a bad name. However, there is another kind of power,socializedpower—power directed at helping others.All three of your authorsare high on socialized power.19 We are motivated to write this textbook becauseour goal is to help you be the best you can be at work and in your personal life. . Legitimate Power: Influencing 1 Behavior Because of One’s Formal Position egitimate power,which all managers have, is powerthat results from L managers’ formal positions within the organization.All managers have l egitimate power over their employees, deriving from their position, whether it’s a construction boss, ad account supervisor, sales manager, or CEO. This power may be exerted both positively or negatively—as praise or as criticism, for example. . Reward Power: Influencing 2 Behavior by Promising or Giving Rewards eward power,which all managers have, is power thatresults from R managers’ authority to reward their subordinates.Rewards can range from praise to pay raises, from recognition to promotions. . Coercive Power: Influencing 3 Behavior by Threatening or Giving Punishment oercive power,which all managers have, results frommanagers’ C authority to punish their subordinates.Punishmentcan range from verbal or written reprimands to demotions to terminations. In some lines of work, fines and suspensions may be used. Boards of directors also have this type of power—they can fire the company’s CEO with a vote. Coercive power has to be used judiciously, of course, since a manager who is seen as being constantly negative will produce a lot of resentment among employees. . Expert Power: Influencing 4 Behavior Because of One’s Expertise xpert poweris power resulting from one’s specializedinformation or E expertise.Expertise, or special knowledge, can bemundane, such as knowing the work schedules and assignments of the people who report to you. Or it can be sophisticated, such as having computer or medical knowledge. Administrative assistants may have expert power because, for example, they have been in a job a l ong time and know all the necessary contacts. CEOs may have expert power because they have knowledge not shared with many others. . Referent Power: Influencing 5 Behavior Because of One’s Personal Attraction eferent poweris power derived from one’s personalattraction.As we R will see later in this chapter (under the discussion of transformational leadership inSection 14.5), this kind of power is characteristicof strong, visionary leaders who are able to persuade their followers through their charisma. Referent power may be associated with managers, but it is more likely to be characteristic of leaders. . Informational Power: Influencing 6 Behavior Because of the Logical and/or Valuable Information One Communicates I nformational poweris power deriving from one’s accessto information.Although not included as a separate sourceof power in the original research on power bases in organizations, later research added informational power to the typology.25 People who are “in the know”in organizations may be seen as having informational power. Nurses are great examples. I nfluence tacticsare conscious efforts to affect what someone thinks or how they behave.Behavior is a function of what we think. As such, influence often starts with affecting someone’s beliefs. Influence tactics can be used for good (e.g., persuading co-workers to pitch in their time for a community volunteer effort) or for bad (e.g., pressuring a subordinate into keeping a boss’s unethical behavior a secret). C ommitment.Employees are committed when they agree with a person’s request and put their full energy behind supporting and implementing it. Committed employees change their behavior because theywant to.A meta-analysis of8,987 employees across 49 studies reveals the first three influence tactics inTable 14.2—rational persuasion, inspirationalappeals, and consultation—were most effective at building commitment.39 Compliance.Employees comply with an influence attemptby going along with the request despite having mixed feelings about it. Compliance results in employees putting forth minimal or average effort toward the requested action. Compliant employees change their behavior because they feelobligatedto.Compliance works well for simple and routine tasks like wearing safety equipment or buckling your seatbelt. It is less effective for complex tasks that require sustained motivation. The danger with compliance is that it produces short-term results that fizzle out over the long term. The middle three influence tactics inTable 14.2—ingratiation, personal appeals, and exchange—tendto result in compliance.40 Resistance.Employees resist an influence attemptby opposing or obstructing the request. Resistance results in employees passively or actively opposing the requested action by procrastinating, arguing, or outright refusing. This outcome results in an unsuccessful influence attempt. The last three influence tactics inTable 14.2—coalition (used asa coercive tool), pressure, and legitimating—are usually met with employees’ resistance.41 rait approaches attempt to identify distinctive characteristics T that account for the effectiveness of leaders. We describe (1) positive task-oriented traits and positive/negative interpersonal attributes (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy) and (2) some results of gender studies. arra embodies the traits of (1) dominance, (2) intelligence, (3) B self-confidence, (4) high energy, and (5) task-relevant knowledge. These are the five traits that researcher Ralph Stogdill in 1948 concluded were typical of successful leaders.43 Stogdill is one of many contributors to trait approaches to leadership,which attempt to identify distinctive characteristics that account for leaders’ effectiveness. N arcissism.Narcissismis defined as “a self-centered perspective, feelings of superiority, and a drive for personal power and glory.”49 Narcissists have inflatedviews of themselves, seek to attract the admiration of others, and fantasize about being in control of everything. Although passionate and charismatic, narcissistic leaders may provoke counterproductive work behaviors in others, such as strong resentment and resistance.50 They also tend to react with anger and counterproductive work behaviors in response to ethical norms because they infringe on narcissists’ preference for self-centered and risky behavior.51 Machiavellianism.Inspired by the pessimistic beliefsof Niccolò Machiavelli, a philosopher and writer (ThePrince) in the Italian Renaissance,Machiavellianism(pronounced “mah-kyah-vel-yahn-izm”) displays a cynical view of human nature and condones opportunistic and unethical ways of manipulating people, putting results over principles.This view is manifested in such expressionsas “All people lie to get what they want” and “You have to cheat to get ahead.” Like narcissism, Machiavellianism is also associated with counterproductive work behaviors, especially as people begin to understand that they are being coldly manipulated.52 Page 510 sychopathy.Psychopathy(“sigh-kop-a-thee”) is P characterized by lack of concern for others, impulsive behavior, and a lack of remorse when the psychopath’s actions harm others.Not surprisingly, a person witha psychopathic personality can be a truly toxic influence in the workplace.53 hat Do We Know W about Gender and Leadership? he increase in the number of women in the workforce has generated much T interest in understanding the similarities and differences between female and male leaders. re Women Represented in A Leadership Positions? omen make up more than half the workforce and more than half of all W college students in the United States but have not achieved gender parity in leadership.55 Women are making gains at the topbut are still underrepresented. For example, there were only 53 women CEOs leading Fortune 500 companies in 2023, the first time over 10% of Fortune 500 companies were led by women.56 Maria Black is one example: Leader emergence: ○ A meta-analysis of 136 studies and 19,073 participants spanning seven decades revealed men were moderately more likely to emerge as leaders in organizations than omen. The gender difference in leadership emergence w has been cut in half in recent years.59 ○ The gender gap has closed in occupations such as health care, teaching, and service professions where women are equally likely as men (and sometimes more likely) to emerge as leaders.60 ○ One factor that perpetuates the gender gap, according to a meta-analysis of 174 studies, is that men generally have higher leadership aspirations than women.61 This is because women who internalize traditional gender roles are less inclined to seek leadership positions, especially in male-dominated industries. Leader behavior: ○ A meta-analysis of 54 different studies found that female leaders were more likely to use transformational leadership behaviors than male leaders.62 We discuss these behaviors inSection 14.5. Page 511 ○ ○ A meta-analysis of 112 different studies of abusive supervision (a type of destructive leadership discussed later in the chapter) found that male leaders were more likely to exhibit abusive behaviors than female leaders.63 Leader style: ○ W omen were more likely to use a democratic or participative style than men, and men were more likely to use an autocratic and directive style. These differences may be attributable to women expressing more communal traits such as warmth, concern for others, and interpersonal sensitivity whereas men tend to express agentic traits such as ambition, dominance, and assertiveness.64 Leader effectiveness: Does gender influence leader effectiveness? Research suggests it doesn’t. Women and men are similarly effective as leaders. Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock W ○ omen and men are similarly effective as leaders.65 ○ When there are more men than women in the organization and when the setting is more masculine, men tend to be rated slightly higher than women on leadership effectiveness. ○ Women are more likely than men to be appointed to leadership positions in times of crisis.66 ○ It’s not clear whether or how leader gender impacts firm performance.Research results on top management team (TMT) gender diversity and firm performance are mixed. A recent academic meta-analysis of 146 studies from 33 different countries found that “there are small but dependably positive associations of female representation in CEO positions and TMTs with long-term value creation.”67 Additional research suggests gender diversity on boards of directors can improve firm performance if it’s accompanied by professional diversity as well as a culture that encourages members to benefit from board members’ diverse perspectives.68 Where Are We Now? omen’s representation in leadership positions is improving and the gender gap W is closing. But more work remains to continue closing the gap, especially at the executive ranks. Two tailwinds that promise to facilitate women’s continued leadership emergence are: 1. C hanging gender stereotypes.A meta-analysis of 16U.S. public opinion polls ranging from 1946 to 2018 shows that women have widened their advantage over men in communal, or socially supportive, traits but men’s advantage in agentic, or control-oriented, traits has remained the same. Women have also c losed the gap to achieve equality with men in perceived intelligence and creativity. These trends convey a progression of more favorable attitudes toward women that translate into a growing female advantage in gender stereotypes and more leadership opportunities in the workplace.69 . Page 512 2 3. More equitable organizational support for leadership development.Organizations are increasing the leadership pipeline for everyone by implementing more mentoring, leadership development, peer coaching, advisory circles, and other programs.70 These supportive HR practices not only improve a company’s diversity, equity, and inclusion, they develop human capital from all areas of the organization by giving them equal opportunities and experiences to develop leadership-relevant skills.71 1. W e cannot ignore the implications of leadership traits. Traits play a central role in the way we perceive leaders, and they do ultimately affect leadership effectiveness.78 For instance, integrity, self-awareness, gratitude, and learning agility were among the top leadership traits according to the Center for Creative Leadership, along with empathy, courage, and respect.79 More specifically, many companies attempt to define leadership traits important for their context. 4. The positive and “dark triad” traits suggest the qualities that are conducive and detrimental to success in leadership roles.According to expert scholars, narcissistic leaders often have groundbreaking ideas but fail to execute them successfully. Such execution requires the collaboration of an entire team, and narcissists’ need to control even small details can make followers miserable and unwilling to work together to achieve goals.80 Personality tests and other trait assessmentscan help e valuate your strengths and weaknesses on these traits. Connect contains a host of tests you can take for this purpose. 5. Organizations may want to include personality and trait assessments in their selection and evaluation processes. Among the growing number of companies using psychometric testing—tests that assess a job applicant’s intelligence, personality, and skills—are Citigroup, Deloitte, Ford Motor Company, Procter & Gamble, Hewlett-Packard (HP), and JPMorgan Chase.81 6. Recall from our discussion inChapter 9that there are legitimate concerns about bias and accuracy associated with workplace personality testing. Organizations should stick with validated, job-related personality assessments and should use them for development purposes rather than employment decisions.82 7. Cross-cultural competency is an increasingly valued task-oriented trait.Companies want to enhance employees’ global mindsets as they expand their international operations and hire more culturally diverse individuals for domestic operations in the United States.83 Aglobal mindsetis your beliefin your ability to influence dissimilar others in a global context. leader’s traits, gender, and skills directly affect their choice of behavior. The A focus of those interested inbehavioral leadershipapproachesis to determine the key behaviors displayed by effective leaders.These approaches identified two categories of leader behavior: T ask-oriented behavior. Relationship-oriented behavior. uch of what we know about task-oriented and relationship-oriented leader M behaviors is based on research done at The Ohio State University and University of Michigan. Both studies found that leader behaviors tend to focus on tasks and/or relationships: ask-Oriented Leader T Behaviors he primary purpose oftask-oriented leadership behaviorsis to ensure T that human, physical, and other resources are deployed efficiently and effectively to accomplish the group’s or organization’s goals.84 Examples of task-oriented behaviors include planning, clarifying, monitoring, and problem solving. As mentioned earlier in this section, task-oriented leadership behaviors may be referred to as initiating-structure or production-centered behaviors. he Focus of T Task-Oriented Leadership: “Here’s What We Do to Get the Job Done” I nitiating-structure leadershipis leader behaviorthat organizes and defines—that is, “initiates the structure for”—what employees should be doing to maximize output.Production-centered leaderbehaviors emphasize the technical or task-related aspects of employees’ roles. Clearly, these are very task-oriented approaches. elationship-Oriented R Leader Behavior elationship-oriented leadershipis primarily concernedwith R leaders’ interactions with their people.The emphasisis on enhancing employees’ skills and creating positive work relationships among co-workers and between the leader and the led. Such leaders often act as mentors, providing career advice, giving employees assignments that will broaden their skills, and empowering them to make their own decisions.87 One of the simplest andbest ways to engage relationship-oriented leadership is to ask open questions and listen attentively.88 he Focus of T Relationship-Oriented Leadership: “The Concerns and Needs of My Employees Are Highly Important” onsiderationis leader behavior that is concernedwith group C members’ needs and desires and directed at creating mutual r espect or trust.Employee-centered leader behaviors emphasize relationships with subordinates and attention to their individual needs.These are important behaviorsto use in addition to task leadership because they promote social interactions and identification with the team and leader. o What Do We Know S about the Behavioral Approaches? wo key conclusions we may take away from the behavioral approaches are the T following: 1. A leader’s behavior is more important than their traits. It is important to train managers on the various forms of task and relationship leadership. 2. There is no type of leader behavior that is best suited for all situations.Effective leaders learn how to matchtheir behavior to the situation at hand.91 We discuss howto do this in the next section. ou learned in the previous section that that there is not one best style of Y leadership to use in every situation. This conclusion led proponents of the situational approach(or contingency approach) topropose that effective leadership behavior depends on the situation.That is, as situations change, different leader styles become more or less appropriate. et’s consider two situational approaches: (1) Fiedler’scontingency leadership L modeland (2) House’spath–goal leadership model. . The Contingency 1 Leadership Model: Fiedler’s Approach he oldest contingency leadership model was developed by Fred Fiedler T and his associates beginning in 1954.92 Thecontingencyleadership modeldetermines if a leader’s style is (1) task-orientedor (2) relationship-oriented and whether that style is effective for the situation at hand. wo Leadership Orientations: Tasks T versus Relationships Fiedler’s contingency model requires that leaders identify their leadership style. T here are two leadership styles in Fiedler’s model:The two leadership styles in Fiedler’s contingency model are (1) task-oriented and (2) relationship-oriented.93 Whichdo you think is your style? That is, as a leader, are you more concerned with task accomplishment or with people? Page 516 Y our leadership style is determined by your LPC score: To find out your leadership style, you would fill out a questionnaire (known as the least preferred co-worker, or LPC, scale) in which you think of the co-worker you least enjoyed working with and rate them according to an eight-point scale of 16 pairs of opposite characteristics (such as friendly/unfriendly, tense/relaxed, efficient/inefficient). The higher the score, the more the relationship-oriented the respondent; the lower the score, the more task-oriented hree Dimensions of Situational T Control iedler assumes leaders can’t change their dominant leadership style. They are F either task-oriented or relationship-oriented. This implies that leaders are most effective when their dominant leadership style matches their level ofsituational control—how much control and influence they have intheir immediate work environment. here are three dimensions of situational control:leader-member relations,task T structure,andposition power. L eader-member relations—“Do my subordinates accept me as a leader?”This dimension, the most important component of situational control, reflects the extent to which leaders have or don’t have the support, loyalty, and trust of the work group. Task structure—“Do my subordinates perform unambiguous, easily understood tasks?”This dimension refers to the extent to which tasks are routine, unambiguous, and easily understood. The more structured the jobs, the more influence leaders have. Position power—“Do I have power to reward and punish?”This dimension refers to how much power leaders have to make work assignments and reward and punish. These forms of power reflect legitimate, reward, and coercive power defined inSection 14.1. More power equals more control and influence Which Style Is Most Effective? either task- nor relationship-oriented leadership are effective all the time, N Fiedler’s research concludes; rather, each style is better suited for certain situations.95 W hen is a task-oriented style best?The task-orientedstyle works best in eitherhigh-controlorlow-controlsituations. H igh-control situation—leaders’ decisions producepredictable results because they can influence work outcomes. Low-controlsituation—leaders’ decisions can’t produce predictable results because they can’t really influence outcomes. When is a relationship-oriented style best?The relationship-oriented style works best in situations ofmoderate control. hat do you do if your leadership style does not match the situation? Move to a W different situation. According to Fiedler’s model, it’s better to try to position leaders into suitable situations rather than try to alter their leadership styles to better fit the current situation.96 Fiedler’s assumptionthat people cannot change t heir basic leadership style is not supported by research.97 Nonetheless, it is the first leadership model to contend that leadership effectiveness depends on the situation. . The Path–Goal 2 Leadership Model: House’s Approach second situational approach, advanced by Robert House beginning in the A 1970s, is thepath–goal leadership model,which holdsthat effective leaders make available to followers desirable rewards in the workplace and increase their motivation by clarifying the paths, or behaviors, that will help them achieve those goals and providing them with support.A successful leader “clears the path” andhelps followers by tying meaningful rewards to goal accomplishment, reducing barriers, and providing support. These behaviors increase employees’ performance and satisfaction.98 umerous studies testing various predictions from House’s original path–goal N theory provided mixed results.99 As a consequence,he proposed a new model, a graphical version of which is shown inFigure 14.2.Originally, House proposed that there were four leader behaviors, or leadership styles. The revised theory expanded the number of leader behaviors from four to eight. We condensed these leader behaviors into two overarching categories: task-oriented and relationship-oriented leader behaviors. Figure 14.2General representation of House’s revised path–goal theory hat Determines Leadership W Effectiveness: Employee Characteristics and Environmental Factors Affect Leader Behavior wo contingency factors, or variables—employee characteristicsand T environmental factors—cause some leadership behaviorsto be more effective than others. E mployee characteristics:Five employee characteristicsare locus of control (described inChapter 11), task ability,need for achievement, experience, and need for path–goal clarity. Environmental factors:Two environmental factors aretask structure (independent versus interdependent tasks) and work group dynamics. Page 518 he model proposes that leaders are most effective when they complement the T environment by providing what employees need that the environment does not rovide. According to House, “the role of the leader is to provide the necessary p incremental information, support, and resources, over and above those provided by the formal organization or the subordinate’s environment, to ensure both subordinate satisfaction and effective performance.”100 hat Does Path–Goal Look Like in W Practice? I n contrast to Fiedler’s contingency model, House’s path–goal model assumes that a leader’s style is flexible. In other words, as a leader, you should figure out the style that will work best for your particular employees and environment, and then use that style. Here are two hypothetical examples: E mployees with an internal locus of control are more likely to prefer relationship-oriented over task-oriented leader behaviors because they believe they have control over the work environment. The same is true for employees with high task ability and experience. Employees with an external locus of control, however, tend to view the environment as uncontrollable, so they prefer the clarity, goals, and guidance provided by task-oriented leader behaviors. The same is probably true of inexperienced employees. hat does adapting one’s leadership style to followers’ needs and the W environment look like in real-life? Consider the following example. lthough further research is needed on the new model, we can offer several A important implications for managers:105 U se more than one leadership style.Effective leaders possess and use more than one style of leadership. Thus, you are encouraged to study the leadership styles offered in the next two sections so you can try new leader behaviors when a situation calls for them. Help employees achieve their goals.Leaders shouldguide and coach employees in achieving their goals by clarifying the ath and removing obstacles to accomplishing them. Research p shows effective coaching increases employees’ performance.106 Alter your leadership behavior for each situation.A small set of employee characteristics (ability, experience, and need for independence) and environmental factors (task characteristics of autonomy, variety, and significance) are relevant contingency factors, and managers should modify their leadership style to fit them. The career readiness competencies of emotional and social intelligence are helpful tools for doing so. Provide what people and teams need to succeed.View your role as providing others with whatever they need to achieve their goals. For some it could be encouragement, and for others it could be direction and coaching. Research shows leaders who were culture contributors, providing employees what the organization’s culture did not, increased firm performance whereas culture conformists did not S tep 1: Identify important outcomes.Managers must first identify the goals they want to achieve. For example, the head coach may have a goal of winning a certain number of games or avoiding injuries to key players, whereas a sales manager’s goal might be to increase sales by 10% or reduce customers’ complaints by half. Step 2: Identify relevant leadership behaviors.Next managers need to identify the specific types of behaviors that may be appropriate for the situation at hand (S ections 14.5and14.6elaborate on a number of leadership styles). For now, let’s focus on task-oriented and relationship-oriented behaviors. A head coach in a championship game, for instance, might focus on directive, task-oriented behaviors. In contrast, a sales manager might find supportive, relationship-oriented behaviors more relevant for an experienced sales team. on’t try to use all available leadership behaviors you’ll D learn about in the coming sections. Rather, select the combination that appear most helpful for a particular situation. Ask yourself, “What do my employees need from me right now?” Step 3: Identify situational conditions.Fiedler and House both identify a set of potential contingency factors to consider, but there may be other practical considerations. For example, a star quarterback on a football team may be injured. This might require the team to adopt a different strategy for winning the game. Similarly, the need to manage a virtual sales team with members from around the world will affect the types of leadership most effective in this context. Step 4: Match leadership to the conditions at hand. There are too many possible situational conditions for us to provide specific advice. This means you should use your knowledge about management and employee behavior to find the best match between your leadership styles and behaviors and the situation at hand. The coach whose star quarterback is injured might use supportive behaviors and inspirational motivation to instill confidence that the team can win with a different quarterback. Our sales manager might find it useful to use empowering leadership and avoid directive leadership. Step 5: Decide how to make the match.Managers can use guidelines from either contingency theory or path–goal theory: change the person in the leadership role or change their behavior. It is not possible to change the head coach in a championship game. This means the head coach needs to change their style or behavior to meet the specific challenge. In contrast, the organization employing t he sales manager might move them to another position because the individual is too directive and does not like to empower others. Or the sales manager could change their behavior, if possible. Transactional Leadership s a manager, your reward and coercive power stems from your ability to provide A
