Sociology Reading Notes - Chapter 1

4/22/25, 6:27 PM OneNote READING NOTES Wednesday, 5 February 2025 12:59 PM CHAPTER 1 People...

4/22/25, 6:27 PM OneNote READING NOTES Wednesday, 5 February 2025 12:59 PM CHAPTER 1 People get married because of “they are in love” but in reality, there can be many different factors that affect this decision (financial background, race, culture) SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ○ Sociology is the systematic study of human society. ○ Sociological perspective is the pov that sees general patterns of society in the lives of particular people. In the perspective of marriage, a patterns we can see is people of similar financial backgrounds getting married to each other, or people of the same race getting marries to each other. Love is a feeling we have that match up with what society teaches us to want in a male ○ Many choices we make in life is due to sociological perspective Most students in university is between the age of 18-30, because this time frame is what society considers the ideal time for one to strive for higher eduction. COUNTRY POV: A being raced in different countries will be making different choices due to the society structures and customs of that country. ○ People belonging to minorities are aware of the social patterns that others rarely think about. Your treatment due to your “minority title” can shape how your life is going to be. GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE ○ The study of the larger world and our society’s place in it. Global awareness is the logical extension of the sociological perspective. Higher income countries have higher standard of living -> affects your amy of life. People in these countries are better off not because they are much smarter or hard working than others, its just cause they seem to be lucky. Middle incoming countries contrastingly have social inequality. BASICALLY 1. WHERE WE LIVE SHAPES THE WAY WE LIVE 2. SOCIETIES THROUGHOUT THE WORLD ARE INCREASINGLY INTERCONNECTED 3. WHAT HAPPENS IN THE REST OF WORLD AFFETS LIFE IN OTHER COUNTRIES 4. MANY SOCIAL PROBLEMS FACED IN US ARE FAR MORE SERIOUS SOMEWHERE ELSE 5. THINKING GLOBALLY HELPS US LEARN MORE ABOUT OURSELVES. APPLYING SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE Sociologists can shape public policy (Sociologist research on decrease in women’s income from divorce has led to laws being set to support women in divorces monetarily) Sociology makes us critically see what is “common sense”. (We decide our own fate, so successful people are superior, but is this the truth?) Helps us live in a diverse world THE ORIGINS OF SOCIOLOGY ○ A new industrial economy, the growth of cities, political change, a new awareness of society ○ Many early thinkers such as Comte was interested in imagining the ideal society rather than studying the present society. Many themes of god and religion was used in the study of society SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY ○ The basic job is to explain social behaviour in the world A theory is a statement of how and why specific facts are related ○ Questions faced during deciding on a throw is what issues should we study? How should we connect the facts? Approach theoretical approach -> A basic image of society that guides thinking and research Types of theoretical approach (a basic image of society that guides thinking and research) Structural approach: building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. The approach points to social structure and relatively stale patterns of social behaviour. Basically the structural approach helps points to social structure, a stable pattern of social behaviour and social functions, the consequence of any social pattern for the operation of the society as a whole. This approach keeps the society unified and stable. HUMAN BODY – SOCIETY, functions help the society to thrive. https://connecthkuhk-my.sharepoint.com/personal/u3638902_connect_hku_hk/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={4df74b58-b8ba-4238-8f8c-67… 1/27 4/22/25, 6:27 PM OneNote ○ MANIFEST FUNCTIONS: the recognised and intended consequences of any social pattern (US education system helping kids study) ○ LATENT FUNCTIONS: the unrecognised and unintended consequences of any social pattern (US education system fostering love, marriage brokers) Social disfunction is also present in this structure, any social pattern that disrupt the society. IN CONCLUSION, this approach tries to keep society stable and orderly, sociologists use this approach to know what makes society tick. This approach is unpopular now for disregarding inequalities of race and such. Social Conflict approach: sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change. This approach highlights inequality and change, sociologists investigate how race, gender, age, etc are linked to society's unequal distribution of money, power, education. Focuses on how social patterns benefits some, but hurt others. ○ Feminism and Gender conflict theory: The study of society that focuses on inequality and conflict between women and men. Makes us understand ways in which society places men in positions of power over women. Makes us aware of the importance of women in the advancement of sociological theory. ○ Race conflict theory: The study of society that focuses on inequality and conflict between people of different race and ethnic groups. So, sees how Caucasian people have historically, and even in the present, have a societal advantage compared to people of other races. Again, also points out the contributions made by the people of colour into the study of sociology. Symbolic-interaction approach: previous 2 share a macro level orientation where a broad focus is placed on social structures that shape society as a whole, seeing the big picture such as a city's reaction to a new highway. This one has a micro one, where a close up focus on social interaction in specific institutions, how do children invent games at the local playground. Hence, this is framework building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interaction of individuals. We humans create "reality" and we define our surroundings, decide what we think of others and shape our own identities. APPLYING THE APPROACHES, THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPORTS: ○ Function of sports: The 1st approach directs our attention to how sports benefit our society. Sports is a recreational activity where one can get physically fit, and harmlessly let off steam. It creates job for many people in a country and encourages healthy competition, and the pursuit of success. BUT, sports can have consequences too, universities recruiting students through sports scholarships might solely do it for their sports abilities without giving a care for academic ability, lowering the education quality of a country. ○ Sports and Conflict: Social standing can play on what sports someone plays, (tennis, swimming and golf being sports made for the well off while football, baseball being more accessible for the poor). Men have dominated the world of sports, and society still encourages sports to be for men, even only allowing women to play sports that are seen as feminine. Coaching jobs are more given to men than women too. Race discrimination also exists in sports. ○ Sports as interaction: A sporting event is a complex, face-to-face interaction, but it can also be spontaneous and unpredictable, thus allowing sport to not be categorised as systematic, but more an ongoing process. Behaviours of players can be different, and can change over time (going from a rookie to a champion) Chapter 2: Sociological Investigation BASICS OF SOCIAL INVESTIGATION ○ Two simple requirements: 1) Apply the sociological perspective =, 2) Be curious and ask questions ○ Science as one type of truth In a complex and ever changing world, there are many different “truths”. The traditions can be “beliefs” or “faith”. The comes the factual truth, and then a truth based on the simple agreement between ordinary people. "Truths" can be held by certain societies that might seem weird or preposterous to other people. ○ Common sense versus Scientific evidence Sociology can help in identifying what is plane stereotyping and what can be considered a truth by critically taking in information. THREE WAYS TO DO SOCIOLOGY https://connecthkuhk-my.sharepoint.com/personal/u3638902_connect_hku_hk/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={4df74b58-b8ba-4238-8f8c-67… 2/27 4/22/25, 6:27 PM OneNote ○ Positivist Sociology Study of the society based on systematic observation of social behaviour They use concept: a mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form to label aspects of social life including "the family" and "the economy". A variable is a concepts whose value changes from case to case. For example, grocery Page no. prices in different parts of the world, social class. The use of variables then depend on measurement, a procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case. For example, measuring someone social class by the clothes they wear, the activities they do and such. The sociologists have trouble in identifying which factors can be used to measure (automobile seller being a middle class job but the person itself belongs to upper class) and also have to look at the vast majority of people to make consensus. Averages is used to solve this problem. Use structural-functional approach It is important that these sociologists operationalise a variable by specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variable. ▪ For a measurement to be useful it has to be reliable (consistent) and valid (exactly measured). ▪ Difficult to measure as for example, to measure how many people are religious in your school, you ask them how many times they visit a holy place -> but is this really a measurement of being really religious or spiritual? ▪ Then, cause and effect is seen to identify how variables relate. The variable that causes the change is called independent variable and the variable that changes is called dependant variable. ▪ Correlation is a relationship in which 2 or more variables change together. ○ Spurious correlation is an apparent but false relationship between 2 or more variables that is caused by another variable ○ It is important to keep control, where all variables are held constant, except one in order to see clearly the effect of the variable Objectivity (personal neutrality) is important when doing studies for this. ▪ While it may be hard to keep complete objectivity, it is important that a professional distance and a sense of detachment is kept from the results. (Weber) ▪ Researchers may even disclose their own personal leanings in their work so that readers can keep in mind when reading the work. ▪ It is important researches study the world as it is rather than telling how it should be. NEGATIVES OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIOLOGY: ▪ Human behaviour is too complex for sociologists to predict any individuals actions precisely. ▪ The presence of a researcher may affect the behaviour of the human. ▪ Sociologists can never be 100% value free when researching ○ Interpretive Sociology The study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world. They don’t complete ignore science, but changes the form of research. Positive sociologists Interpretive Sociologists Focus on action Focuses on understanding of actions and their surroundings Claims objectivity exists out there Reality is the subjective, constructed by people in their course of their everyday lives Favour quantitative data Favour qualitative data Best suited for labs Interacting with people These sociologists don’t just observe what people do, but they try to understand why people do it. The thoughts and feelings of subject is important to them. Use symbolic interaction approach ○ Critical Sociology Study of sociology that focuses on the need for social change Doesn’t need sociologists to be value free, but rather strive for wanting to advocate for change and questions the problems of society Politics and sociology match here. Sociologists have to be political, but they can choose which sides to be in. Cannot be b Use social-conflict approach page 68-81 https://connecthkuhk-my.sharepoint.com/personal/u3638902_connect_hku_hk/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={4df74b58-b8ba-4238-8f8c-67… 3/27 4/22/25, 6:27 PM OneNote ISSUES AFFECTING SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH ○ Gender Androcentricity leads to sociologist approaching an issue from a male perspective, while ignoring the women perspective. Overgeneralizing, only taking data from one gender Double standards, enforcing traditional stereotypes Interference, how do the subject react to the sex of the researcher ○ Research ethics Sociologists have to be fair minded and skilful in their work, must disclose all research finding without omitting anything. Must make sure the subjects participating in the research are not harmed and their privacy is protected. Must not accept money from a source that has a conflict of interest, so disclose all financial supports. RESEARCH METHODS ○ A systematic plan for doing research ○ Testing a hypothesis: State which variable is the independent variable (the “cause” of the change) and which is the dependent variable (the “effect,” the thing that is changed). (2) Measure the initial value of the dependent variable. (3) Expose the dependent variable to the independent variable (the “cause” or “treatment”). (4) Measure the dependent variable again to see what change, if any, took place. If the expected change took place, the experiment supports the hypothesis; if not, the hypothesis must be modified. Chapter 3 WHAT IS CULTURE ○ Culture is the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together form a people’s way of life. ○ Culture includes what we think, how we act, and what we own. Culture is both our link to the past and our guide to the future. Nonmaterial culture is the ideas created by members of a society (art and zen) Material culture is the physical things created by members of a society (armchairs to zippers) Culture shapes what we and think ○ Unfamiliarity for cultures lead to culture shock, personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life. ○ Globalisation has led to the death of several languages ELEMENTS OF CULTURE: ○ A symbol is anything that carries a particular meaning recognised by people who share a culture. (A word, whistle, a wall covered with graffiti) ○ We are so dependent on our cultures symbols that we take them for granted. ○ Culture shock is experienced when we encountering people whose way of life is different. ○ Language: Language, a system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another’ Language is also the key to cultural transmission, the process by which one generation passes culture to the next. People who speak different languages can experience the world differently as each language has their own distinctive symbols that serve as the building blocks of reality ○ Values and beliefs: Values are culturally defined standard that people use to decide what is desirable, good, and beautiful and that serve as broad guidelines for social living. Beliefs specific thoughts or ideas that people hold to be true. Values change over time In a global perspective , lower-income nations contain populations that are vulnerable develop cultures that value survival, higher income countries develop cultures that value individualism and self-expression. ○ Norms Norms are rules and expectations by which a society guides the behaviour of its members. ○ Material cultures and technology: These include human creations called artifacts (chopsticks for the Chinese) Technology is the knowledge that people use to make a way of life in their surroundings Comparing technology of cultures should not lead us to serve judgements about other cultures Technology is not equally distributed within our population. ○ New information Technology and culture: Industrial economy has led to technology advancing to a phase of using computers, and other electrical devices. https://connecthkuhk-my.sharepoint.com/personal/u3638902_connect_hku_hk/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={4df74b58-b8ba-4238-8f8c-67… 4/27 4/22/25, 6:27 PM OneNote Workers need symbolic skills in the wake of this change, including the ability to speak, write and design and create images. CULTURAL DIVERSITY: ○ High culture and popular culture: High culture refers to cultural patterns that distinguish a society’s elite and popular culture are cultural patterns that are widespread among a society’s population. Its widespread stereotype that high is superior to popular, but this is a weary judgement as neither classes have similar tastes or interests. Country’s culture is made up of the life patterns of all our people, don’t discredit a culture. ○ Subculture Cultural patterns that set apart some segment of a society’s population. It is often inaccurate to place people in some sub cultural category but sometimes there are blatant cultural differences. ○ Multiculturalism: A perspective recognising the cultural differences of the US and promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions. Eurocentrism is the dominance of European cultural patterns and Afrocentrism is that for Africans. Criticism for multiculturalism include it encouraged divisiveness rather than unity because it urges people to identify with their own category rather than with the nation as a whole. ○ Counterculture: Cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society ○ Cultural change Invention, discovery and diffusion (exchange of new information) has led to cultural changes. ○ Eurocentrism and cultural relativism What people think is normal in their society might not be considered be the same in other societies For example, British drive cars on the left hand side, Americans drive on the right So, Eurocentrism means the practice of judging another culture by the standards of our own culture. It is necessary for people to be emotionally attached to their way of life, but it can also garner misunderstanding and conflicts To contrast, cultural relativism is the practice of judging a culture by its own standards. It requires openness to unfamiliar values and norms and also the ability to put aside cultural standards. ○ A global culture The flow of goods, the flow of communication and information, the flow of people have allowed for a global culture to be cultivated. But, the global flow can be uneven in different parts of the world, as urban areas have stronger ties to one another. People also need the ability to afford various goods and services. THEORIES OF CULTURE ○ Structural functional theory Cultural values direct our lives, give meaning to what we do and bind people together The theory explains culture as a complex strategy for meeting human needs Cultural universals are traits that are part of ever known culture, these include jokes, funerals. ○ Social conflict theory Any cultural trait, from this point of view, benefits some members of society at the expense of others Capitalism, serves the interests of the nations wealthy elite. This theory also serves in the form of gender, feminists claim that out culture is gendered where our way of life reflects the amy’s in which our society defines what is male as more important that what is female. Masculine word “king” signifies power and prestige which “queen” has more negative conditions. ○ Sociobiology: Evolution and culture A theoretical approach that explores ways in which human biology affects how we create culture Darwin poses this theory and he asserts that living organisms change over long periods of time as a result of natural selection, a matter of four simple principles, First, all living things live to reproduce themselves The blueprint of reproduction is in the genes Some random variation in genes allows a species to “try out” new life patterns in a particular Over thousands of generations, the genetic patterns that promote reproduction survive and become dominant. This theory leads to claims of superiority of one gender over the other, due to their distinctive reproduction strategies (men can do it quickly, women have it harder) CULTURE AND HUMAN FREEDOM ○ Humans cannot live without culture, but living in a symbolic world means that we are also the only creatures who experience alienation. ○ Culture forces us to make choices, as we make and remake a world for ourselves https://connecthkuhk-my.sharepoint.com/personal/u3638902_connect_hku_hk/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={4df74b58-b8ba-4238-8f8c-67… 5/27 4/22/25, 6:27 PM OneNote Chapter 6: Social interaction in everyday life Social interaction is the process by which people act and react in relations to others. SOCIAL STRUCTURE: ○ Members of every society rely on social structure to make sense of everyday situations ○ The world can be confusing, even freighting, when society’s rules are unclear. STATUS ○ A status is the social position that a person holds. ○ Status is a part of out social identity and helps define our relationship to others. ○ Status set Refers to all the statuses a person holds at a given time A teenage girl can be a daughter to her parents, a sister to her brother, a student at her school Status sets change over the life course. A child grows up to become a lawyer, a single person becomes a wife. ○ Ascribed and Achieved status: An ascribed status is a social position a person receives at births or takes involuntarily later in life. Achieved status refers to a social position a person takes on voluntarily that reflects personal ability and effort (college student, nurse) Peoples ascribed status can influence their statuses they achieve. ○ Master Status: A status that has special importance for social identity often shaping a persons entire life A job is a master status because it reveals a great deal about a persons social background, education and income. Name can also be a master status such as Bush, Trump, Kennedy A master status can be negative as well as positive, serious illness for example. (AIDS) ROLE ○ A behaviour expected of someone who holds a particular status. ○ Role set A number of roles attached to a single status A women is a professor and interacts with students, she is a researcher and gathers and analyses data, she’s a wife and holds the marital role with her partner. Roles people use to define their lives differ from society to society (Lower income countries have people spending less years as students) ○ Role conflict Conflict among the roles connected to 2 or more statuses Politicians finding it demanding to hold a campaign while have a good family life. Role strain refers to tension among the roles connected to a single status A professor while enjoying being friendly with students, still have to maintain a personal distance. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF REALITY ○ The process by which people creatively shape reality through social interaction ○ Ethnomethodology The study of the way people make sense of their everyday struggles How are you is usually is used to know more on how the person is doing in general, but you might also want to know how they are doing in a specific factor. ○ People build reality from the surrounding culture, people over the world find different meanings in specific gestures. DRAMATURGICAL ANALYSIS: ○ The study of interaction in terms of theatrical performance ○ This analysis holds a status as a part in a play, and roles serve as a script, providing dialogue and action for the characters. ○ Each individuals performance is seen as the presentation of self, “a persons efforts to create specific impressions in the minds of others” and impression management person’s efforts to create specific impressions in the minds of others” (ibid, p. 172) Also known as impression management ○ Performances Front stage: where the real performance is made in front of other people Back stage: where people are relatively free to express their real self and prepare for upcoming front-stage performance ○ Non verbal communication using body movements, gestures and facial expressions rather than speech. ○ IF THE PERFORMANCE GOES WRONG, then embarrassment comes forward Embarrassment = slip-ups or spoiled performance https://connecthkuhk-my.sharepoint.com/personal/u3638902_connect_hku_hk/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={4df74b58-b8ba-4238-8f8c-67… 6/27 4/22/25, 6:27 PM OneNote Lead to the loss of face of the performer Often create discomfort for both the performer and the audience ○ Tact = help the spoiled performer to save face Members of the audience can help the performers in saving face. Missteps are pointed out unitedly and discreetly Tact is more of ignoring or rather discrediting something embracing said or done by the performer, it is done to release the discomfort held by both the performer and audience from the embarrassing moment. INTERACTIONS IN EVERY DAY LIFE: ○ Emotions Emotions are an important element of human social life Culture defines what triggers an emotion Emotions are held in jobs too, Flight attendants might have to fake emotions cause their job demands it. ○ Language: Language can be used to establish control over their surroundings Language can confer different claves on the 2 sexes (masculine words -> strong, feminine words -> weak) ○ Humor Producing humor through playing with realities Create and contrast two realities (conventional reality VS unconventional reality) Conventional (what culture leads people to expect in certain situations), unconventional (unexpected violation of cultural patterns) Getting a joke can have many factors (if you understand the culture being shared) Filling in the gaps in joke is something audience has to do in regards to jokes Topics of humorous can be different for people around the world Humor can also be a source of conflict, as it can be used put down other people. Chapter 9: Deviance WHAT IS DEVIANCE ○ Deviance is the recognised violation of cultural norms, and as norms guide almost all human activities, the concept of deviance is quite broad ○ A category of deviance is crime, which is the violation of a society’s formally enacted criminal laws ○ Deviant actions can range from crimes such as murder, rape to even students speaking loudly in class or being too enthusiastic about new computer technology. ○ Deviant actions have in common is the element of difference that causes one to think of them as an outsider. Deviant people can also be used for people who are extraordinary, but does not conform to society’s standards. So, the adjective doesn’t have to be only used to describe people in a negative way? ○ Social Control All of us are subject to social control, which is the attempt by society to regulate peoples thoughts and behaviour. This process is often informal (parents scolding their children, friends making fun of your choices.) Serious deviance involve the criminal justice system, the org (police, courts, and prison officials) that respond to alleged violations of the law) ○ Biological context We have long overruled the theory that human behaviour is linked to biological instincts. Lombroso theorised that people with certain physical characteristics (prominent jaws and cheekbones) are more likely to commit crimes. This theory has further been used to say that men with more muscular builds are more likely to commit crimes. Now, while research is being done on whether biological aspects lead to crimes, the main factors are suggested to be genetic factors (defective genes) and environmental factors lead to added crime. ○ Personality factors Psychological explanations of deviance related to abnormality of individual personality Personality, while inherited, can largely be influenced by social experience too. ○ Social foundations of deviance Deviance can be shaped by society, how much ever we think deviance comes from free choice or personal failings of individuals. ▪ Deviance varies according to cultural norms as no action or thought is inherently deviant, it only becomes deviant in relation to particular norms. Norms varies in different places, hence deviants varies in different places. These can include unique laws. (Marijuana and gambling legality) ▪ People become deviant as others define them that way, as its human nature to violate certain cultural norms. Behaviour of people are seen abnormal or normal according to how others perceive, define and respond to it. ▪ Social power is included in how societies set norms. A homeless man denouncing the gov would get arrested while a mayor candidate would get police protection. https://connecthkuhk-my.sharepoint.com/personal/u3638902_connect_hku_hk/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={4df74b58-b8ba-4238-8f8c-67… 7/27 4/22/25, 6:27 PM OneNote STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL THEORIES: ○ Key insight is that deviance is necessary part of social organisation. ○ Durkheims insight MEANS U Durkheim made the insight that there is nothing abnormal about deviance, it actually IN POWE performs 4 essential functions ▪ Deviance affirms cultural values and norms. There cannot be good without evil, COPE TH virtue rests on an opposing idea of vice. ▪ Responding to deviance clarifies moral boundaries, it helps in drawing the line between right and wrong ▪ Responding to deviance bring people together. (Protests) ▪ Deviance encourages social change as it suggests alternative status quos and encourages change. ○ Merton strain theory Argues that society can be set up in a way which encourages too much deviance. The extent and type of deviance people engage in depend on the means society provides (schooling) and the cultural goals they achieve (financial success). The strain between US’s emphasis on wealth and lack of opportunities for the disadvantaged to achieve this status can lead them commit serious deviant crimes such as stealing. This is known as innovation, using unconventional means rather than conventional to to achieve a culturally approached goal. Ritualism is when people don’t care to be rich, but stick to the rules rigidly to at least be considered respected. Retreatism is basically the person giving up or “dropping out”. This mean going towards alcohol, drugs. Rebellion are people who reject cultural definition of success and the conventional means of achieve in it and instead form a counterculture to alternate the existing social order. ○ Deviant subcultures Suggests that deviance comes from a relative opportunity structure that frames a persons life. (People from poverty having lowered chances of success, going towards illegal means to achieve said success, Al Capone) ▪ Criminal subcultures include criminal activities ▪ Conflict subculture include violence out of frustration or want for respect and power These subcultures are characterised by trouble, toughness, smartness, a need for excitement, a belief in fate and a desire for freedom. SYMBOLIC INTERACTION THEORIES ○ Explains how people define deviance in everyday situations. ○ Labelling theory The theory that deviance and conformity result not so much from what people do, as from how others respond to those actions Stresses the theory of deviance, meaning people may define the same behaviour in any number of ways. ▪ Primary deviance: norm violations which provoke slight reaction from others and have minimal effect on a person’s self concept ▪ Secondary deviance: following the identification of primary deviance, an individual begins to change, taking on a deviant identity by acting in a different way and repeatedly breaking rules ▪ Some norm violations such as underage drinking and skipping school is called primary deviance, where the actions provoke slight reactions from others and have little effect on a person's self-concept. ▪ After an action is defined as a primary deviance, the individual may begin to change their way of dressing, acting and repeatedly break the rules, this is called secondary deviance. When a person begins to employ deviant behaviour as a means of defence, attack or adjustment, this becomes secondary deviance. ▪ A person is seen as an alcohol abuser, which establishes primary deviance, an as a bitter response, he starts drinking more, which establishes secondary deviance. ▪ Stigma is a powerful negative label that greatly changes a persons self concept and social identity, it operates a master status and can discredit a person in the minds of others. ▪ After stigmatisation, people partake in retrospective labelling, interpreting someone’s past in light of some present deviance. A priest being revealed of molesting children could make people rethink his past (he wanted to be around young children a lot) ▪ People can have a tendency to treat behaviour that irritates or threatens them as deviant rather than just different. People likely to quickly label behaviour they don’t like and thin different as mental illness. ○ Sutherland theory A persons tendency toward conformity or deviance depends on the amount of contact with others who encourage or reject conventional behavior. (The differential association) Studies show that young people are much more likely to participate in deviant behaviour if they see their peers acting out. https://connecthkuhk-my.sharepoint.com/personal/u3638902_connect_hku_hk/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={4df74b58-b8ba-4238-8f8c-67… 8/27 4/22/25, 6:27 PM OneNote ○ Hirschi’s control theory Control theory states that social control depends on people anticipating the consequences of their behaviour. He assumes that everyone finds at least some deviance tempting. But due to great of a ruined life, people refrain from acting upon these desires. ▪ Attachment (confirmatory from strong social attachments), opportunities, involvement (jobs, education) and Belief are some of the reasons that people conform and not act out. THEORIES OF CLASS, RACE, AND GENDER ○ Deviance and power The people we assume are deviants are normally unemployed men, prostitutes, not corporate polluters, which suggests there is a stigma of deviance. Social-conflict theory suggests that due to laws of society, the interests of the rich and the powerful are reflected in societal norms. People who threaten the wealthy are normally suggested to be deviants. The powerful also has the power to resist deviant labels when their behaviour is called into question. ○ Deviance and Capitalism Deviant labels are added to the people who interfere with the operation of capitalism - Steven Spitzer Capitalism is based on private control of wealth, the people who steal from the rich or basically threaten the private property of the wealthy are quickly tilted deviant. But, the rich who take advantage of the poor are not given the same treatment. For example, when the landlord who charge poor tenants high rents and evict them when they can’t pay aren’t given deviant labels, but are rather “just doing business”. As capitalism is based on the idea of working hard, people who are not working are also given “deviant” labels. People who directly challenge the capitalist status quo are also defined as deviant. (Labour organisers, radical environmentalists) Society condemns using drugs of escape (cocaine and weed), but supports drugs that promote adjustment to the status quo (Caffeine) both the social welfare and criminal justice systems blames individuals, not the system, for social problems” (Macionis, p. 250) ○ Race-conflict theory Hate crime is a criminal act against a person or a persons property by an offender motivated by racial or other bias. ○ Feminist theory Every society in the world places stricter controls on women than on men. Gender influences how we define deviance because people commonly use different standards to judge the behaviour of females and males. Men having more power than women in society also leads them to escape direct responsibility for actions that victimise women (sexual assault) Women are more vulnerable to being labeled as deviant than men. Chapter 8: Sexuality and Society UNDERSTANDING SEXUALITY ○ Sexuality is a theme found almost everywhere, in sports, on campus, in the workplace, and especially in the mass media. ○ But, sex can also be seen as a topic of taboo. ○ Sex: a biological issue Sex refers to the biological distinction between females and males. From a biological point of view, sex is the way the human species reproduce. ○ Sex and the body Right from birth, the 2 sexes have different primary sex characteristics, namely the genitals which are organs used for reproduction. After puberty, people develop secondary sex characteristics, bodily development apart from the genitals, that distinguished biologically mature females and males. (Mature females have wider hips for giving birth, milk producing breasts.) Sex is not the same thing as gender, Gender is an element of culture and refers to the personal traits and patterns of behaviour (including responsibilities, opportunities and privileges) that a culture attaches to being male or female. Intersexual people refers to the people whose bodies have both female and male characteristics. It is natural and very rare. As it is culture to have a defining sex for yourself, many people view intersex people with disgust or confusion. Transsexuals are people who feel they are one sex, even though biologically they are other. The people are born with feelings of being trapped in a body of the wrong sex and have a desire to be the other sex. This feeling is responded to by undergoing gender reassignment. https://connecthkuhk-my.sharepoint.com/personal/u3638902_connect_hku_hk/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={4df74b58-b8ba-4238-8f8c-67… 9/27 4/22/25, 6:27 PM OneNote ○ Sex: a cultural issue Sexual orientation: “a person’s romantic and emotional attraction to another person” Sexuality is a cultural issue too. While people find sex to be pleasurable, our biology doesn’t dictate any specific ways of being sexual any more than our desire to eat dictates any particular food or table manners. Sexual practices vary with societies. (Missionary position loved in certain countries, never even tried in some cultures.) Even the action of showing affection varies from society to society (openly showing pda in western countries vs restraining in eastern countries) Modesty also differs culturally (if a women is naked an a person enters the room, an Islam women would cover face, Laotian woman cover her breasts, Samoan women cover her navel) Some countries in the world also highly restrict sexuality (China not having pre marital sex) ○ Incest taboo: Incest taboo is universally accepted as formidable. It is the norm of forbidding sexual relations or marriages between certain relatives. Reproduction between close relatives are done to maybe keep power within a single family (common in a lot of monarchy’s) but it is problematic as it raises the odd of producing kids with mental or physical problems. Controlling sexuality among close relatives is a necessary element of social organisation It keeps the sexual competition in families restricted As family ties define people’s rights and obligations towards one another, incest would confuse kinship. (Mother and son had a kid, is the son a father or brother) SEXUAL ORIENTATION ○ It is a persons romantic and emotional attraction to another person. The norm is heterosexuality, sexual attraction to someone of the other sex Homosexuality is the sexual attraction to someone of the same sex Bisexuality is the sexual attraction to people of both sexes Asexuality is a lack of sexual attraction to people of either sex ○ Sexual attraction is not the same as sexual behaviour. Many people might be attracted to people of the same sex, but might not act on it sexually. ○ Heterosexuality is seen as the norm due to its facilitation for reproduction. But there is past of homosexuality being celebrated (women only being viewed as people to use for babies, women being viewed as inferior, hence not a good partner to have) ○ What gives us a sexual orientation Product of society: Argues that people in any society attach meanings to sexual activity. Pointed out by Foucault that distinct category as homosexuality wasn’t recognised until scientists defined it, even though homosexual experiences was present in society at the time. Product of biology: Suggests that sexual orientation is innate, rooted in human biology, in the way that people are born right-handed or left-handed. Genetics could influence sexual orientation too. (The gay gene) THEORIES OF SEXUALITY ○ Structural functional approach As sexuality has serious consequences, the society will regulate these behaviours The need to regulate sexuality Biologically, sex allows reproduction. But culture and social institutions regulate with whom we can reproduce, for example limiting it to only our spouses. Incest taboo is an example that shows us that society doesn’t permit freely choosing your sexual partners. While historically the use of sex was only viewed for childbirth, a society developing technology has led to a more liberal view of sex. Latent functions of prostitution: Prostitution is so widespread as it is a way for many to help their sexual needs while not having access to a sexual partner (soldiers, travellers) Some people also prefer prostitution as they want to have sex without the hassle of a relationship. ○ Symbolic interaction approach As people interact, they construct everyday reality. People sometimes construct very different realities, hence societies having different views on the understanding of sexuality. Social construction of sexuality Changing importance of virginity. Changing attitude on sexuality involving younger people. They were deemed to be too innocent for talks on sexuality, but now most schools conduct a talk on sex. “sex, rather than being natural and instinctual is, in fact, principally a learned behavior that is produced within specific cultural contexts ○ Social Conflict and Feminist theory Sexuality reflecting social inequality In the example of prostitution, there is a power struggle between the genders, where the female prostitute is less powerful as they are more likely to be arrested than the male. Would women even be involved in prostitution is they had equal opportunities as men. Sexuality creating social inequality https://connecthkuhk-my.sharepoint.com/personal/u3638902_connect_hku_hk/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={4df74b58-b8ba-4238-8f8c-6… 10/27 4/22/25, 6:27 PM OneNote Defining women in sexual terms amounts to devaluing them into objects for men’s desires. Pornography can depict women being objects and men having more power than them. Abortion laws show men have more power than women in the world of reproductive health as well. Queer theory A body of research findings that challenges the heterosexual bias in the US Society. Heterosexual culture creates bias for many under the LGBTQ spectrum. Chapter 13: Gender stratification GENDER AND INEQUALITY ○ Gender refers to the personal and social positions that members of a society attach to being female or male. ○ Gender is a dimension of social organisation that shapes how we interact with others and even how we think about ourselves. ○ Gender also involves hierarchy, placing women and men in different positions in terms of wealth, power and other resources. This hierarchy leads to gender stratification, the unequal distribution of wealth, power and privilege between men and women. ○ Male and female differences Many believe this phenomenon is due to biological reasons. Women were not allowed to vote cause it was viewed that all women weren’t intelligent or interested enough in politics. This actually just reflects cultural patterns. While physically, men can be deemed superior to men, there’s no research that points one gender in being superior in terms of intelligence. Globally, different cultures and different perspectives of which gender are superior, or if whether both genders are considered equal. What it means to be female or male is mostly a creation of the society. ○ Patriarchy and sexism Patriarchy is the form of social organisation where male dominate females. It is common in most societies, and is further justified by sexism, the belief that one sex is innately superior to the their. Matriarchy is a form of social organisation where females dominate males. It is less seen, but is popular in Mussolini society in China’s Yunnan province. Costs os sexism includes the loss of talent due to limited empowerment of women in society and the promotion of “toxic masculine” qualities among men such as smoking tobacco, driving recklessly. Many claim that Patriarchy is difficult to dismantle due to difference in hormones ad slight differences in brain structures among men and women, but it is argued that gender is socially constructed and can be changed. GENDER AND SOCIALISATION ○ Gender roles are attitudes and activities that a society linked to each other sex. It is something that is taught to kids, and can play a part in how they should perceive themselves too. ○ Gender and roles Pink for girls, blue for boys; kisses for girls, bouncing on a knee for boys The female world revolves around cooperation and emotion, male world puts a premium on independence and action ○ Agents of socialisation Family, peer groups, schooling, mass media. ○ The power of gender socialisation Mass media has put forward an ideal body type for women This form of gender socialisation has had toxic effects on women, leading to problems of eating disorders. GENDER AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION ○ Women are much likely to work “pink collar jobs” such as administrative support work and service work (73% is filled by women) ○ Male dominated jobs are different, architects, business, engineers ○ Gender stratification has also led to women taking the supporting job to serve the men, female nurse for a male doctor for example. ○ Women are kept away from the jobs by society by having the male dominated occupations be labelled as a “mans job” (glass ceiling). ○ The unemployment jobs of men fall much faster than women, due to a huge chunk of male jobs being manufacturing. ○ Gender pay gap means women earn much lower than men Calls to reverse this problem by introducing comparable worth, where people are paid based on their skills and knowledge have been supported. Because more of the responsibility of parenting is given to women, the notion of pregnancy and raising women has led to women not being able to find higher paying jobs. Women might also not take faster paced jobs in the fear of raising children, hence losing out their chance on taking high paying jobs. THEORIES OF GENDER https://connecthkuhk-my.sharepoint.com/personal/u3638902_connect_hku_hk/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={4df74b58-b8ba-4238-8f8c-67… 11/27 4/22/25, 6:27 PM OneNote ○ Structural functional theory Gender serves as mean to organise social life Gender forms a complimentary set of roles that links women and men into family units and gives each sex responsibilities for carrying out important tasks. This means, society dictates that women take the set roles of managing the household while men go out and work This has led to differences in education the genders, society teaches boys to be rational and competitive while girls are taught to be sensitive and emotionally expressive. Society also encourages gender conformity by instilling in men and women a fear that straying too far from accepted standards of masculinity and femininity will cause rejection by the opposite sex. ○ Symbolic interaction theory Gender affects day to day interactions in many ways Society defines how women and men should behave in the form of sex roles For example, men are excepted to take charge of social encounters and women are excepted to show respect to the others of higher social position. The taking of your husbands name deems you as more caring, dependent and emotional but keeping your maiden name makes you ambitious, talented and capable according to society. ○ Social conflict theory Gender is a structural system that provides privilege to one and disadvantage to the other. Friedrich Engles suggested that in hunting and gathering times, the activities of men and women, though different, had equal importance (men went to hunt, women in charge of farming, end goal of sustaining is equally done) Technological advances has led to creating a class hierarchy, making men become more powerful than women. With surplus wealth, upperclassmen deemed sons as the sole heirs and needed them to be their own blood, leading to controlling women’s sexuality. (Virginity till marriage and faithfulness after) The rise of capitalism made this difference even stronger as the use of trade and industrial power made men more rich, giving them more power. ○ Intersection theory There are multiple systems of stratification based on races, class and gender and these systems do not operate independently of one another. Intersection theory is the analysis of the interplay of race, class, gender which often results to multiple dimensions of disadvantage. (American women might have it better than African women) This theory shows us that while gender has a powerful effect on our lives, it doesn’t operate alone as class, sexual orientation, race and such form a multilayered system that provides disadvantage for some and privilege to others. FEMINISM ○ “support of social equality for women and men, in opposition to patriarchy” (ibid, p. 366) ○ Basic principles of feminism Take action to increase equality (push for equality within genders and use the intersection theory too) Expand human choice (beyond the two opposing and limiting spheres of the female world and the male world, suggests that emotions shouldn’t be gendered and propose that all humans develop all human traits) Eliminate gender stratification throughout society End sexual violence Promote sexual freedom (contraception) ○ Types of feminism Liberal Feminism: believed all individuals should be free develop their own talents and skills They accept the basic organisation os society but seek to expand the rights and opportunities of women. Also support reproductive freedom of women Accept family as an institution of the society, but disagree on the regressive sides of it. Liberalists believe that women should advance according to their individual efforts and merit, rather than by working collectively for change. Socialist feminism Believe that capitalism increased patriarchy They do not believe the liberal feminism wants aren’t enough, believe that families fostered by capitalism should change in order to replace domestic slavery. Radical feminism Believe that the patriarchy is so deeply entrenched that the society must eliminate gender itself to reach social equality. They argue that motherhood should be removed as a job for women, and technology should be researched that removes the childbearing jobs on women They argue that this dismantles the institution of family, liberating women, men and children from the oppression of family, gender and sex itself. Multicultural and global feminism https://connecthkuhk-my.sharepoint.com/personal/u3638902_connect_hku_hk/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={4df74b58-b8ba-4238-8f8c-6… 12/27 4/22/25, 6:27 PM OneNote Argue that while women have a common position of oppression, race and class position alter the life experiences of certain women. Chapter 10: Social Stratification WHAT IS SOCIAL STRATIFICATION ○ Social stratification is a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. It is based on 4 important principles. ▪ Social Stratification is a trait of society, not simply a reflection of individual differences. Many of us think of social standing in terms of personal talent and effort, as a result, exaggerating the extent to which we control our own fate. The children of the rich are much more likely to enjoy good health and education. Neither the rich or the poor created social stratification, it is a system that creates us all. ▪ Social stratification carries over from generation to generation. Stratification is a trait of societies rather than individuals as it is parents who pass their social position to their children. Some people can experience social mobility, a change in position within the social hierarchy. This can be both downwards or upwards socially. ▪ Social stratification is universal but variable. Social stratification is found everywhere, but what is considered unequal and how unequal a thing is varies from society to society. ▪ Social stratification involves not just inequality but beliefs as well. Any system of inequality not only gives some people more than others, but also defines these arrangements as fair. The explanations of why people should be unequal differ from society to society. CASTE AND CLASS SYSTEMS ○ The caste system ▪ It is a social stratification based on ascription, or birth. ▪ EXAMPLE: INDIA Many of the agrarian societies in the world believe in the caste system. The hierarchy if Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Sudra, Harjans. From birth, the caste system determines the direction of a persons life. A caste system also demands your married partner be of the same social category as yours (endogamous marriage) Caste guides people to interact with “their own kind” everyday. It is especially frowned upon to interact with the lowest class due to their label of being “polluted”. ▪ By teaching a sense of moral duty, a caste system ensures that people are disciplined for a lifetime of work and are willing to perform the same jobs as their parents. ○ Class system ▪ Social stratification based on birth and individual achievement. ▪ Class systems are more open than caste systems. So people who gain education and skills may experience social mobility. Class distinctions become blurred and even blood relatives could have a different social standing than you. ▪ Meritocracy is the social stratification based on personal merits. This includes a person’s knowledge, abilities and efforts. There is no pure meritocracy in the world. Caste societies also defines merits in different terms, where dutifully performing whatever job comes with the social position a person has form birth. Because, they assign jobs before anyone can know anything, about a persons talent or interests. A need for social order leads to industrial and post industrial societies keeping some elements of the caste, such as passing wealth, as pure meritocracy would have individuals moving up and down the social ladder all the time, leading to pull apart families and other social groupings. Only some meritocracy is encourage in order to promote productivity and efficiency. ▪ Status consistency is the degree of uniformity in a persons social standing across various dimensions of social inequality. Caste system has a limited social mobility and a high status consistency ranking in regards to wealth and power. Class system has higher social mobility and low status consistency. IDEOLOGY: SUPPORTING STRATIFICATION ○ Ideology are cultural beliefs that justify particular social arrangements, including patterns of inequality. (People are rich cause they are smart and people are poor cause they are lazy). ○ Plato argued that all culture considered some type of inequality as just, Karl Marx was even more critical of inequality. Marx concluded that the culture and institutions combine to support a society’s elite which is why established hierarchies last such a long time. ○ Historical patterns of ideology ▪ Ideologies changes along with society’s economy and technology. ▪ Agrarian societies depend on most peoples lifelong labour, and they develop cast systems to make carrying out the duties of a persons social status become a moral responsibility. https://connecthkuhk-my.sharepoint.com/personal/u3638902_connect_hku_hk/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={4df74b58-b8ba-4238-8f8c-6… 13/27 4/22/25, 6:27 PM OneNote ▪ Industrial capitalism led to the rise of the ideology of meritocracy, which defined wealth and power as the prices won by the people who work the best. (Herbert Spencer’s belief that the fittest people rise to wealth while the failures shrink to miserable poverty, leading to the poor being seen as losers) THEORIES OF SOCIAL INEQUALITY ○ Structural functional theory: The Davis Moore thesis ▪ The thesis states that social stratification has beneficial consequences for the foperation of society. ▪ There are some jobs that are very easy, some that are difficult. This leads to the conclusion that the greater the functional importance of a position, the more rewards a society attaches to it. This strategy promotes productivity and efficiency because hard work is rewarded with wealth and status. ▪ An equality based society would lead to equal rewards being given to everyone, offering little incentive for people to try their best. ▪ Herbert Gans: The functions of poverty A slight twist of the social-functional approach: “instead of identifying functions for an entire social system, I shall identify them for the interest groups, socioeconomic classes, and other population aggregates with shared values that “inhabit” a social system” (Gans, p. 313) Key argument of the paper: “poverty persists not only because it fulfils a number of positive functions but also because many of the functional alternatives to poverty would be quite dysfunctional for the affluent members of society.” (ibid, p. 316) 13 functions of poverty are identified by Gans The society’s ‘dirty work’ will be filled by the poor The poor working at low wages subsidize a variety of economic activities that benefit the affluent Poverty creates jobs for a number of occupations and professions that serve or service the poor The poor buy goods others do not want and thus prolong the economic usefulness of such goods The aristocracy needs to have the poor to demonstrate its superiority over the other elites The poor can absorb the costs of change and growth of the society The poor facilitate and stabilize the political process The role of the poor in legitimating conventional norm and status quos ○ Social conflict theory: ▪ Argues that rather than benefiting the society as a whole, stratification benefits some people while disadvantaging others. ▪ Karl Marx theory: The major classes under the capitalism are the bourgeoisie who own the productive property and the proletariat, who labour for others. Explains that the capitalist society reproduces the class structure in each new generation. The social stratification benefits the capitalists at the expense of the workers and the society reproduces the class structure in each new generation. Marx predicts that while wealth will be passed down by the capitalists each generation, the working class would eventually work together to overthrow the system that oppress them. ▪ Why has there been no Marxist revolution yet? Fragmentation of the capitalist class as many major companies are now owned by shareholders (can be ordinary people) rather than large wealthy families. A higher standard of living due to the shift from blue collar jobs to white collar jobs, mainly thanks to capitalism. More worker organisations in the form of labour unions that represent them. Greater legal protections. ▪ But, Marxist theories are still valid as wealth is severely concentrated among the top 5% and problems of inflation and unemployment are still problems that highly affect the working class of the world. Many work benefits that exist for the middle class do come through class conflict and legal protections are still weak. ▪ Max Webber: Three dimensions (class or economic wealth, status or social prestige and power or political power) States that the social consistency in society is quite low. Weber believes that social stratification in industrial societies are multidimensional rather than a hierarchy by using the term socioeconomic status, a composite ranking based on various dimensions of social inequality. Webber believes that social stratification can be eliminated by abolishing the private ownership of productive property rather than overthrowing capitalism https://connecthkuhk-my.sharepoint.com/personal/u3638902_connect_hku_hk/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={4df74b58-b8ba-4238-8f8c-6… 14/27 4/22/25, 6:27 PM