Forensic Science: Traces and Individuals PDF

# Traces & Individus ## Identification **1) General:** - **Traces:** * Papillary patterns * Retina * Genetic material * Voice * Face * Measurements * Iris * Venous network - **Others:** * Signature * Digital biometric data * Credit card number * SIM...

# Traces & Individus ## Identification **1) General:** - **Traces:** * Papillary patterns * Retina * Genetic material * Voice * Face * Measurements * Iris * Venous network - **Others:** * Signature * Digital biometric data * Credit card number * SIM card number * Alias * IP address * etc. **2) Identification Based on Polymorphic Markers** - **Characteristics:** * Durable over time / persistent * Discriminating * Detectable / measurable * Reproducible * Analyzable * Comparable - **Timeline:** * **Before 1832:** Physical records * **After 1832:** Transition to filing systems for records, which were poorly organized, had approximate descriptions, and were not standardized. * **1871:** Fire in Paris destroyed records of recidivists. * **1879:** Bertillonage System was implemented and used until the early 1900s. * **Early 19th Century- Early 20th Century:** Transition to paper traces. **3) Historical Timeline of Fingerprinting & Identification** - **1788:** Johann C. A. Meyer first mentioned the uniqueness of paper traces. - **1823:** Johannes E. Purkinje began the classification of paper traces, but didn't mention using them for identification. - **1858:** William Herschel documented the permanence and uniqueness of fingerprints in the Hoogley letter. - **1880:** Henry Faulds first mentioned the scientific application of fingerprints, including identification of recidivists, twins, and corpses. - **1891:** Juan Vucetich created the Vucetich system, a classification and coding system for ten-fingerprints. - **1892:** Francis Galton first mentioned minutiae, the importance of heredity in fingerprint patterns, and the superiority of fingerprinting to anthropometry. - **1896:** Edward Henry further developed the Galton-Henry system, which refined the classification and coding system for fingerprints. **4) Current Practices** - Today, digital data is used for identification, including fingerprints, DNA profiles, and photographs. Although, the systematization of information is not as prevalent as the Bertillonage System was. ## Errors with Using Paper Traces: - Using an inaccurate method. - Overuse of the trace. # Bertillonage/ Anthropométrie criminelle ## Postulates: 1) The skeletal structure is fixed at adulthood, thus measurements are reproducible and durable. 2) Forensic measurements are easily and reliably made. 3) Forensic measurements are comparable, meaning that they can accurately and reliably discriminate individuals from one another. ## Measures: - **Body:** * Head and Face * Limbs - **Portrait Parle:** * Standardized vocabulary. * **Pros:** Scientific classification and identification; ease of use and accuracy. * **Cons:** * Requires full skeletal maturity (20+ years old) * Difficult to apply to women and children * Difficult to distinguish between women's and men's body measurements. * Difficult to distinguish between fine variations in face and body. * Two operators can arrive at different measurements. ## Lophoscopie - **Lophoscopie:** Study, recording, classification, and identification of fingerprint patterns. - **Dactyloscopy:** Study, recording, classification, and identification of fingerprint patterns on the fingers. - **Chiroscopy:** Study, recording, classification, and identification of fingerprint patterns on the palms of the hands. - **Pelmatoscopy:** Study, recording, classification, and identification of fingerprint patterns on the soles of the feet. - **Dermatoglyph:** Fingerprints are formed by the dermal ridges at the extremities of the hands and feet. - **Fingerprints:** * **Persistent:** They are durable and stable. * **Extremely variable:** Every fingerprint is unique, but their discriminative power depends on the quality of the material that the fingerprint is deposited on. * **Transferable via contact:** They can be left behind when something is touched. * **Codifiable/ Classifiable:** They can be organized and categorized. * **Comparable:** The patterns can be compared to one another. ## Exploitation (Fingerprint Functions): 1) **Determine the source:** Compare the trace of evidence (T) to known traces (E). 2) **Link various cases:** Compare the trace of evidence in one case (T) to the trace of evidence in another case (T). 3) **Identify the nature and profile of the source:** Analyze the composition and density of the ridge structure. 4) **Reconstruct an entity with a puzzle** This is not possible. 5) **Determine the relationship between people and objects:** Fingerprint ridges can be visible if there was physical contact between a finger and an object. 6) **Determine the location of interest:** Objects and surfaces that were touched. ## Types of Fingerprints - **Positives:** Deposited fingerprints. - **Negatives:** Prints left when a finger lifts from a surface. - **Moulded:** Indented fingerprints. - **Partial:** Only a portion of a fingerprint is visible. ## Why are Fingerprints so Persistent? - **Epidermis:** Projection of a dermis model. - **Dermis:** Model of the fingerprint. - **Papillae:** Located in the dermis; where the fingerprint is "stored." - **Eccrine Glands:** Secrete sweat. - **Factors that Influence Fingerprint Depositions:** * Conditions of deposition * Support * Aging and degradation * State ## Maximizing Chances of Detecting a Fingerprint (Not always possible): - **Techniques:** * Powder (Adhesive) * Ethyl-2-Cyanocrylate * Ninhydrin * 1,2-Indanedione - **Surface:** * Smooth * Smooth * Porous * Porous - **Mechanism:** * Physical adhesion * Polymerization * Reaction with amino acids * Reaction with amino acids ## Components Found in a Fingerprint: - **Sweat:** (produced by eccrine glands) * **Eccrine:** Contains 98% water and various amino acids. - **Sebum:** (produced by sebaceous glands) * **Sebaceous:** Contains 30-40% fatty acids. - **Apocrine Sweat:** (produced by apocrine glands) * **Apocrine:** Contains 98% water. - **External Sources:** * **Exogenous:** Things that touch a fingerprint. * **Semi-exogenous:** Things that are consumed. ## Fingerprinting Techniques: - The ideal technique depends upon the surface being analyzed. **Level 1: General Fingerprint:** - **M:** Count the number of ridge counts. - **Additional Info:** "Galton Line" refers to the count line; delta-loop and delta-delta lines. **Level 2: Minutiae/ Galton Points:** - **N2:** * **Isolated ridge endpoints:** Small lines terminating within fingerprints. * **Bifurcations/ Branching:** Ridges that split into two. * **Ridge endings:** The end of a ridge. * **Accidents of flow:** "White" lines in fingerprints. * **Cicatrices/ Scars:** Permanent marks. * **Verrucas:** Warts. * **Reversible:** A change in the fingerprint's configuration. **Level 3: Ridge Details:** - **N3:** * **Ridge edge/ form:** The edges of the ridges. * **Pore location:** The pores in the ridges vary between individuals. * **Ridge width:** Width varies between individuals. ## Quantitative Approach - **Count Number of Minutiae (E & T) in Common** (N2) - **If the total number of minuate is similar, then ** (N2), then it is likely a match! - **Simple System:** No need for further characterization - **Problems:** * **No scientific justification for setting a threshold:** There is no scientifically validated number of minutiae that can be used to identify someone without error. * **Ignores the value of the trace:** The uniqueness of the overall fingerprint pattern is not considered, instead, only the number of minutiae is examined. * **Not the same interpretational process for old prints:** When analyzing very old fingerprints, the method of analyzing the trace may differ from the method used to analyze new fingerprints. ## Holistic Approach - **Count the number of characteristics (E & T) in common** (N2&N3) - **Qualitative and quantitative approach:** Analyze all distinguishing aspects of the fingerprint pattern. - **More probable**: This system is more complex and nuanced than the quantitative approach, making it more reliable in identifying potential matches. - **Problems:** This approach requires more training and experience. # Automatic Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) ## How AFIS works - **Database T&E:** A database containing both Traces and Encoded profiles. - **Verification (E ↔ E):** The expert can compare the trace with the database or with a known suspect. - **Verification by Expert:** The expert must verify the match. - **Tracing IDs (TE):** The trace is compared with the database. Any potential matches are narrowed down. - **Linking Cases (TT):** The expert can compare the database entries of multiple cases. ## AFIS Advantages - **Complementing other data sources:** Information from DNA and paper traces can be combined to make stronger conclusions. - **Non-negligible:** Even if a match is not found, the evidence from fingerprints can still be useful in narrowing down the suspects. - **Location and orientation of the trace are important:** The location of the trace can also be helpful for ID purposes. - **Reference studies help with identification:** Research on how a particular mark appeared or the angle of the application can help with ID. # DNA/ Biological Traces ## Profile - **Genetic profile:** The combination of genotypes for all considered loci (marker locations on chromosomes). - **Locus:** Position on a chromosome of a gene or marker. - **Genotype:** The specific alleles that are present in the DNA. - **Allele:** A variant within the DNA sequence. ## Short Tandem Repeat (STR) - **STRs:** Short, repeating sequences of DNA. - **Number of repeats:** The difference in repeat numbers makes each person unique. - **Orientation Test**: Provides preliminary information about whether a biological trace is present. ## Biological Traces Contain DNA - **Rich:** * Blood * Semen * Saliva - **Poor:** * Traces of contact* * Vaginal secretions * Urine * Bone * Teeth * Hair * Fingernails * Toenails - *** 85% of traces tested are traces of contact.** - **Trace Biological:** * Orientation test reveals whether a trace is biological. * Determine the type of biological trace (e.g., blood or saliva). - **Source:** * Contains the DNA of a person. * Can be used to identify the source of the trace. - **Activity**: * This information is vital for understanding the nature of the incident. ## Criteria for Using DNA - **Stable:** The DNA should not deteriorate rapidly or degrade over time. - **Persistent:** The DNA should last for a reasonably long time, so long-term storage is possible. - **Discriminating:** The DNA should have distinguishing features that differentiate individuals from one another. - **Sensitive:** The DNA should be sensitive enough to be detected in small amounts of evidence. - **Codifiable/ Comparable:** The DNA should have a uniform system of classification and be easily compared to other profiles in a BDD. ## Exploitation (DNA Functions): 1) **Determine the Source:** Compare the trace of evidence (T) to the known trace (E) . 2) **Link various cases:** Compare the trace of evidence in one case (T) to the trace of evidence in another case (T). 3) **Identify the Nature and Profile of the Source:** Identify the type of biological trace. 4) **Reconstruct an entity with a puzzle:** Combine the information from the biological trace and the genetic profile to reassemble a complete picture of an event. 5) **Determine the relationship between people and objects:** Identify any interaction that may have taken place. 6) **Determine the Location of Interest:** Identify where the incident may have occurred. 7) **Reconstruct the structure of a time-based event:** Identify the chronology of events. 8) **Determine other aspects of the activity:** Analyze both the biological trace and the DNA profile to understand the activity. # Nuclear DNA ## Structure: - **Double-Helix:** Two strands of DNA twisted together. - **Cell:** Each cell of a human body has 46 chromosomes * 22 pairs of autosomes * 1 pair of sex chromosomes. - **Genes:** * Contain instructions for building and maintaining the body. * Only 5% of the nuclear DNA is considered "coding" or relevant for protein coding. - **Non-coding DNA:** Makes up approximately 95% of the nuclear DNA. Its function is still being researched. ## Exploitation: - **Autosomal DNA & Sex Chromosomes:** Used to establish a genetic profile. - **Legal Framework:** Strict laws for the use of non-coding DNA. - **Switzerland:** Strict guidelines for the use of non-coding DNA and phenotyping data since August 1st, 2023. ## Discriminating Power: - **Highly polymorphic regions:** DNA with many variations across individuals. - **Well-suited for BDD and for comparing profiles:** Makes it particularly effective for constructing databases and comparing individuals. ## Chromosome Y (Y-DNA) - **Paternal Ancestry:** Only inherited from the father. - **Distinguish between major and minor individuals:** This DNA can help identify whether multiple individuals are involved in a crime or to identify family lineage. ## Uses: - **Sexual Assault:** Helpful in identifying the perpetrator. - **Determining paternity:** Can identify a father's genetic lineage. ## Discrimintaing Power - **Intermediate power:** Not as differentiating as autosomal DNA. - **Low Mutation Rate:** Changes very little in the DNA over generations, making it valuable for identifying paternal lineage. ## Chromosome X (X-DNA) - **Inherited from both parents:** Received from both the mother and father. - **Paternity Test:** Can be used to validate a relationship between a father and his child. - **Intermediate power:** Not as differentiating as autosomal DNA but more so than Y-DNA. # Mitochondrial DNA ## Structure: - **Circular:** Is a double-helix structure. - **Maternal Lineage:** Only inherited from the mother. - **Cell**: There are hundreds to thousands of mitochondrial copies. - **Genes:** * Few non-coding genes. * About 37 genes coded. ## Exploitation: - **Alternative Method:** If there is not enough nuclear DNA present or if the DNA is degraded (e.g., old traces), then mitochondrial DNA can be used. - **Limited Discriminatory Power:** Only useful for exclusion purposes or for paternity investigations. - **Mutation Rate:** It mutates at a much faster rate, so it's less useful for establishing identification and paternity. ## Mitochondrial DNA is helpful when: - **Nuclear DNA is scarce or degraded:** Used to gain additional information during an investigation. - **Paternity Testing:** A mother's mitochondrial DNA should match that of her child. ## Power of Discrimination - **Average:** The discriminating power is similar to that of X-chromosome DNA. - **Variation:** Two individuals having the same sequence occurs about one in 1,000 instances. ## Factors Influencing the Discriminatory Power of DNA - **Type of DNA:** The type of DNA used, such as Y-DNA, X-DNA, or mitochondrial DNA. - **The Quality of the Samples:** Degraded or heavily contaminated samples have lower discriminating power. - **Context of the Investigation:** The context of the investigation will influence the weight assigned to the results. - **The Size of the BDD:** The size and complexity of the BDD will also influence the validity of the results. ## Problems: - **False positive results (too many populations in the BDD):** There is a higher chance that a match with an unrelated individual will be found by chance, especially in a large population. - **Misinterpretations:** The use of additional data from other sources (phenotype information, behavior, and other circumstantial evidence) is vital to correctly interpret the results. - **Limits on Phenotyping:** While DNA can be used to identify specific traits, it cannot be used to reliably predict physical characteristics like height or eye color. - **Model Predictability:** DNA prediction models are not perfect and are prone to errors. ## What type of DNA is well-suited for investigations: - **Standard Genetic Profile:** Uses autosomal DNA and Y-chromosome DNA to identify a person and determine their family lineage. - **Most Powerful:** Shows the highest level of discrimination, with the fewest false matches. # Orientation Tests ## To Identify and Characterize a Biological Trace: - **Visual Inspection:** Light source to reveal the presence of the trace. - **Colorimetric:** Apply a chemical indicator to the trace of evidence to confirm its nature. - **Immunochromatography:** Similar to a pregnancy test, this method uses antibodies to identify a specific target and produces a color change if a match is found. ## Blood: - **Visual:** * **Tenter to locate and describe the trace and support:** Determine the shape, size, and color of the bloodstain. * **Forensic Light Source:** Use a 420-470 nm and infrared light source (visible as black or dark). - **Colorimetric:** * **Indicators**: The presence of hemoglobin is tested through these indicators. * **Phenolphtaleine** (Kastle-Meyer reagent): Reacts with hemoglobin to produce a pink color change. * **Tetramethylbenzidine** (Hemastix): Reacts with hemoglobin to produce a blue color change. * **Luminel** (Bluestar reagent): Reacts with hemoglobin to produce chemiluminescence, meaning that it glows. ## False Positives for Blood: - **Substances with Oxidants:** Oxidants, such as the peroxygens found in bleach and some household cleaners, can cause a false positive result when using a colorimetric test for blood. ## Sperm: - **Visual:** * **Locate, characterize, and support:** Determine the shape, size, and color of the spot / area of semen. * **Forensic Illumination:** Use a light source to detect and observe the luminescent qualities of the substance. - **Colorimetric:** * **Hexagen OBTI:** Reacts with hemoglobin to produce a blue color change. * **SERATEC Hem Direct:** Reacts with hemoglobin to produce a blue color change. * **RSID Blood:** Reacts with glycophorin A to produce a pink color change. - **False Positives for Sperm:** * **Many substances:** Can cause a false positive result, such as animal or human fluids. * **Liquids:** Certain liquid substances cause a false positive result, such as acidic juices or orange juice. ## Menstrual Blood: - **Visual:** * **Locate, characterize, and support:** Determine the shape, size, and color of the spot / area of menstrual blood. * **Forensic Light Source:** 420-470 nm and infrared light source. This will luminesce with the presence of blood. - **Colorimetric:** * **SERATEC PMB:** Reacts with hemoglobin and D-dimers to produce a blue color change. ## False Positives for Menstrual Blood: - **Difficult to determine:** It is hard to distinguish this from other blood samples. ## Saliva: - **Visual:** * **Locate, characterize, and support:** Determine the shape, size, and color of the spot / area of saliva. * **Forensic Light Source:** Utilize a 420-470 nm and infrared light source. Salivary traces may luminesce faintly. - **Colorimetric:** * **Phadebas:** Reacts with α-amylase to cause a color change. * **SERATEC Amylase:** Reacts with α-amylase to produce a blue color change. * **RSID Saliva:** Reacts with α-amylase. - **False Positives for Saliva:** * **Food:** Certain foods can cause a false positive reaction. * **Excrement:** Animal excrement can cause a false positive reaction. ## Urine: - **Visual:** * **Locate and differentiate:** Determine the shape, size, and color of the spot / area of urine. - **Colorimetric:** * **RSID Urine:** Reacts with uromodulin (Tamm-Horsfall protein). - **False Positives for Urine:** * **Various substances:** Several substances can cause a false positive result, such as maternal milk, the feces from animals, and other substances. ## Vaginal Secretions & Epithelial Cells: - **There is no standardized orientation test for these substances.** ## Limitations of Colorimetric and Immunochromatographic Tests: - **Sensitivity:** Can vary depending upon the type of biological substance. - **Specificity:** There may be false positive results. - **Destruction of Evidence:** These tests often consume the evidence, preventing further analysis. - **One Target:** These tests only look for the presence of one substance. # DNA Structure - **Structure:** DNA is a double-helix structure, with two strands of DNA twisted together. - **Nucleotides:** DNA is made up of four nucleotides: * Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) * Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C) ## Polymorphism of DNA - **Sequence:** The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA. - **Length:** The length of the DNA sequence. - **Non-Coding Nuclear DNA (STRs):** The genetic blueprint for identifying a person. - **Phenotype:** The physical characteristics of an individual. ## Historical Developments: - **Alec Jeffreys:** 1984. Developed Southern blotting technique for understanding DNA. - **First Operational Use:** 1987. The Pitchfork case. ## Current Techniques - **Short Tandem Repeats (STRs):** Short, repeating sequences of DNA that are used for identification and paternity tests. - **Electropherogram:** The result from the STR analysis. - **TCAT (marker TH01):** An example of a common marker used in forensic analyses. ## Characteristics of STRs: - **Locatable:** STRs are located at a specific site on a chromosome. - **Measurable:** They can be measured in terms of the number of repeats. - **Variable between individuals:** STRs show sufficient variation to make it possible to distinguish individuals. - **Comparable:** STRs allow for comparison between individuals. - **Polymorphic:** STRs are highly variable. ## Markers of Interest: - **No phenotype information:** STRs do not directly determine an individual's physical appearance. - **Highly Variable with a high discriminatory power:** Good for identification and paternity testing. - **Resist degradation:** More stable than other DNA segments because they are short and repetitive. ## STR (Short Tandem Repeats) - **Factors that make STRs a good choice for forensic analysis:** * **High resistance to degradation:** Shorter and more repetitive. * **Highly polymorphic:** More variation between individuals. * **Not correlated:** Not linked together, so they are more independent. * **Large BDD:** Many STRs can be included in a database of DNA profiles. - **Types of STRs:** * **Autosomal:** STRs on any chromosome except sex-linked chromosomes. * **Y-chromosome:** STRs located on the Y-chromosome. * **Amelogenin:** A gene that helps determine sex. - **Challenges:** * **Limited number of STR loci:** More loci means better discrimination power. * **Potential for false positives:** If the BDD is not large enough, there is a chance that a match may be found by chance. * **Limited predictive power:** STRs can be used to identify specific traits. * **Complex procedures:** More time and experience may be required to perform the analysis. - **Benefits:** * **Higher discrimination:** Can distinguish between individuals. * **Lower risk of false positives:** More reliable and accurate results. # Databases of DNA Profiles ## Uses of DNA profiles (BDDs): - **Storage:** Store DNA profiles of criminal suspects. - **Identification:** Compare DNA profiles from crime scenes to identify individuals. - **Paternity tests:** Establish a relationship between a parent and child. ## Historical timeline for the development of DNA databases: - **USA (CODIS):** * **1994:** The DNA Identification Act was passed. * **1998:** National DNA Index System (NDIS) was established. * **2004:** The National DNA Index System (NDIS) began fully operating. * **2015:** CODIS incorporated 20 STR and 1 amelogenin locus. * **2017:** The National DNA Index System (NDIS) incorporated 20 STR and 1 amelogenin locus. - **Switzerland:** * **1999:** The need for a national database was identified. * **2000-2004:** The database was created and tested. * **2005:** The law went into effect for storing DNA profiles. - **United Kingdom:** * **1995:** The UK Home Office created a database of DNA profiles (The National DNA Database; NDNAD) - **China:** * **2005:** The Chinese government established a national autosomal DNA database. * **2012:** A database was established to analyze the Y-chromosome. * **2018:** The Chinese DNA database contained over 70 million profiles. ## Challenges: - **Misuse:** The databases can be misused to discriminate against certain groups of people. - **Privacy:** The use of these databases raises privacy concerns. Individuals may not be aware of the data storage methods or for how long their DNA profiles will be retained. - **Accuracy:** It is important to ensure the accuracy of the data entered into the databases. ## The Future of DNA Databases: - **Expand:** The number and range of DNA genetic profiles are likely to expand, reflecting the increasing use of DNA in forensic investigations. - **Privacy Concerns:** Balancing the need for identifying criminals with the need to preserve the privacy of individuals will remain a challenge. - **Accuracy Challenges:** The importance of quality control and maintaining accuracy within a database. # Facial Recognition ## Approaches: - **Verification of Source (1v1):** The system checks if the face is a match for a stored face in the database. * For applications such as unlocking a phone, or for access control systems. - **Identification (1vN):** The system checks if the face is a match for any face stored in the database. * For applications such as law enforcement or security. - **Supervision (1vN):** The system tracks the presence of a person in a video. * For use in security systems or for monitoring. ## Exploitation: - **Determine source:** Verify the identity of a person. - **Relationship between subject and object:** Used to investigate crime scenes. - **Location of Interest:** Used to locate a person or object. - **Tracking Events:** Used to monitor a person's movement or a crime in progress. - **Reconstruct other aspects:** Used, for instance, to reconstruct an event or to verify the identity of a person. ## Traditional Methods: - **Holistic Analysis:** * The analysis is done of the entire face using a combination of qualitative (general descriptions) and quantitative (measurements) information. * It provides a general assessment of the characteristics of the face. * Difficult to apply to diverse populations with different facial features. - **Morphological Analysis:** * Based on the analysis of the shape and structure of the face. * It can be used to identify specific facial features, such as the shape of the nose or the distance between the eyes. * Subjective; difficult for forensic applications. - **(Photo)Anthropometric Analysis:** * Measures the dimensions and proportions of the face. * More objective than morphological analysis, but it can be influenced by the skill and experience of the analyst. ## Modern Methods: - **Superposition of Images:** * Compare images through overlay, highlighting similarities and differences * Requires high-quality images captured under similar lighting and camera angles * Subjective, depending on the experience of the analyst. - **Semi-Automatic Systems:** Modern approaches combine automated analysis with human expertise. * Improve efficiency and accuracy but challenges remain. ## Challenges with Facial Recognition Systems: - **Complex Algorithms:** Algorithms can be difficult to interpret, especially when the system is used for forensic application. - **Large Databases:** The need for a large and diverse training set of images to ensure accuracy. - **Quality of images:** The quality of facial recognition can vary depending on image quality and lighting conditions. - **Bias:** Existing facial recognition models have been shown to exhibit bias, performing poorly on certain sub-groups of people. - **Privacy:** The use of facial recognition raises ethical and legal issues, as it can be used to track and monitor people without their consent. ## The Future of Facial Recognition: - **Continuous Improvement:** Technological advancements can improve the accuracy of algorithms. - **Ethical Considerations:** Developing ethical guidelines and legal frameworks for the use of facial recognition. - **Regulation:** Governments and corporations will likely create regulations to govern the use of these types of technologies. # Sources * _Les traces et les individus_ by Laurent Mucchielli, 2018. # References * _"The Science of Fingerprints: An Introduction to Forensic Dactyloscopy"_ by J.M. Cowger, 2008 * _"Facial Recognition: The Technology, the Law, and the Future"_ by A.F. Westin, 2019 * _"Genetic Fingerprinting"_ by S.M. Goodman and J.P. Amendt, 2009