The Persian Wars PDF

THE PERSIAN WARS: In 546, Cyrus II of Persia conquered and annexed Lydia, including its Asian trading outlet. In 539, he led a great conquest against Babylon, and captured the ancient capital. Around the 540s, he had led a successful conquest and capture of the Ionian cities, placing them under the...

THE PERSIAN WARS: In 546, Cyrus II of Persia conquered and annexed Lydia, including its Asian trading outlet. In 539, he led a great conquest against Babylon, and captured the ancient capital. Around the 540s, he had led a successful conquest and capture of the Ionian cities, placing them under the unwelcome sovereignty of tyrants. In 521, a bodyguard named Darius seized the throne of the Persian Empire upon the questionable death and subsequent follow-up death of Cyrus’ successor and his alleged brother. Upon taking the throne, he minted coins, linked the Red Sea with the Nile, monitored for rebellions with his spies, and forced labor, taxation, and military service upon his subjects. In 521, Darius led a failed campaign against the European Scythians. His attempts to overtake Scythia were unsuccessful, but his attention wandered to Greece. In 499 BCE, Ionian Greeks broke out into revolution against their appointed tyrants. While initially in favor of invading mainland Greece with Persian assistance, the tyrant Aristagoras of Miletus chose to incite the Ionians against Persia, sensing his imminent removal as tyrant. NOTE: Existing rulers of conquered cities were permitted to remain in power, so long as they behaved favorably towards the Persian Empire As Darius I could display an unforgiving, merciless tendency to punish underperforming commanders, Aristagoras chose to abandon Naxos and his Persian alliance altogether, and to press against Persia with an Ionian Revolt. The Ionian Revolt lasted from 499-494 BCE, and inspired Darius to take arms against the city states who had supported the revolts (Athens and Eretria). Athens provided 20 ships in aid. In 494, Miletus was destroyed. Sardis, the capital of the western Persian Empire, was also burnt. In an effort to continually punish Athens for their support of the Ionian Revolts, Darius and his troops landed in Marathon in 490 BCE. The Athenian general Miltiades contributed to a revival of Athenian morale, and his “swarming” battle method contributed to a rare Athenian victory and halted westward Persian expansion. In 480, the Battle of Thermopylae took place, during which the Spartan King Leonidas and his men defended a narrow path in the mountains of Thermopylae. Leonidas and his men (largely helots and soldiers provided by foreign city states) fell, but allowed the remaining Greeks beyond the narrow straight to recenter their efforts. Despite the Persian victory, the heroic ideal demonstrated at Thermopylae enhanced Greek unity. In 480, Themistocles had the bright idea to turn Athens into an island, thereby sealing the citizens of Athens away from the Persian invasion. Athenian citizens were evacuated from their burnt city onto the island of Salamis, and the Athenian navy engaged the Persian navy in the narrow strait beyond the island. Athens successfully defeated the Persian fleet, prompting Xerxes to return to Asia Minor, leaving behind only a fraction of his troops and Mardonius to complete the conquest of Greece. In 479, the battle of Plataea defeated the remnants of his army, and the Battle of Mycale defeated the remnants of his navy. AFTER Following the Persian Wars, a powerful sense of Hellenic identity was forged. In 478 BCE, the Greeks still maintained a naval presence at Byzantium in order to consolidate Greek power in the east, headed by the command of Pausanias. However, Spartan citizens began to “complain bitterly” about his conduct, that he acted with Persian manners and wore their dress, and exchanged letters with King Xerxes. As such, leadership of the fleet was transferred into Athenian hands, welcoming a diverse array of reactions: some welcomed the change from a nation that was not preoccupied with a helot rebellion, but others feared the expanding extent of Athenian power. This matured into what would be known as the Delian League. In 476, the Delian League, spearheaded by Athens, was formed to unite a Greek front against a possible encounter with Persia again in the future. Participating states sent either ships, men, or money, which was stored in the treasury at Delos. Tribute from the league allowed Athens to offer state pay for services such as jury duty, thereby expanding the number of men who could afford to participate in government. Democratic reforms reduced the advantages enjoyed by aristocrats in politics. Additionally, League Money contributed to religious festivals and architectural endeavors such as the Parthenon. However, the democratic and expansionist platform of Athens induced Spartan tensions. Sparta, among members of the Peloponnesian League, feared both aforementioned pillars. In 464, an earthquake struck Spartan soil, disordering Spartan stability enough to welcome a helot rebellion. Athens, in good faith, sent troops to assist Sparta in effectively subduing the captured rebels. Sparta, perhaps to snub Athens, denied these troops and withheld them from partaking in battle plans. The Delian League, however, continued to fight against Persia, led by Militades’ son Cimon. In 476, Cimon (Kimon) set out northeast with the League’s navy, aiming to 1. Expel Persians from all of Thrace 2. Banish pirates from Scyros and 3. Clear the route to the Hellespont. He successfully captured the island of Scyros, enslaving the pirates and their families and establishing a cleruchy (a colony effectively part of Athenian territory). While there, he also found the bones of King Theseus. Good for him ig. Theseus became the subject of a booming hero cult, and Cimon continually boasted about his accomplishment, as recorded by Plutarch. Shortly after, the Athenians sailed to southwestern Euboea, compelling their cities to join the league. In addition, they confiscated the fleet of Naxos when they attempted to withdraw from the league, forcing them to pay in only money QUESTION: If all Greek states benefited from the League, then they ought to pay tribute and support. But did cities also have the right to make their own determinations about Persian dangers? There was a danger, however: if the Persian threat was too small, then there was no extraordinary need for the alliance. As such, in 467, Cimon defeated Persian forces badly in southern Asia Minor. After destroying 200 ships and defeating the army, his popularity swelled, but his success also encouraged defections from the league. One such instance was the Thasian Revolts, which sparked in 467 BCE over Athenian economic interests regarding the Thracian Mines, on an island beyond the coast of Thasos. Athens sought control over this territory, in order to utilize the gold for Athenian expansion and economic power. Thasos, however, held firm to their autonomy and use of the Thracian mines. They attempted to break away from the Delian League, but were subdued after a siege of two years. As a result, they were obliged to surrender their ships, their mines, and to provide a tribute of cash–which they could not provide, now lacking the income and support of the Thracian mines. Additionally, his actions in Thassos instigated a political examination back in Athens, where it was questioned why he had not used his northern base in order to invade Macedonia. Cimon was accused of accepting bribes from King Alexander of Macedonia. He was eventually acquitted. Athenian politicians, in the approach of the First Peloponnesian War, held differing views on Athens’ proper relationship to Sparta. Whereas Themistocles encouraged democratic competition against Sparta, Cimon favored Sparta, and opposed further democratization. Themistocles, however, was ostracised in 471 for his arrogance. Sparta then accused him of treason. THE FIRST PELOPONNESIAN WAR Athens’ expansionist policies extended, bringing with it the philosophy of democratic governance and hegemony. Between Corinth and Argos sat the commercial state of Megara. The Megarians chose to leave the Peloponnesian League in 460 BCE and ally themselves with Athens for protection from Corinth. Athenian access to the Megarian port alarmed Corinth, as it made it easy for them to sail west. In 459, Corinth and Aegina combined against Athens as a response. In response, Athens built the Long Walls, linking Athens to the port of Piraeus, ensuring that supplies could always be brought in by sea. And THEN in 457, Athens captured Aegina, a strategic island between Athens and the Peloponnese. Battles were exchanged, but drew effectively nowhere, bringing both parties together in favor of the Thirty Years Peace. In 445, the Athenian land empire collapsed. They had no more territory than in 461, As a five year truce between Athens and Sparta expired in 446, Euboea revolted as a result of the cleruchies that Athens had established there. Pericles eventually subdued Euboea, but Megara reverted to the Peloponnesian League, andAthenian influence came to a crash. In 445, Athens came to a peace with Sparta called the Thirty Years Peace. Athens had overextended themselves by fighting with both the Persian empire and the Peloponnesian League, and their imperialism had made them unpopular. The peace initially received optimism from the Greeks. Athens, however, maintained interest in the rich lands of the west, and chose to settle in the instep of southern Italy in 443. This settlement, Thurii, was unique in that the Athenians invited the other Greeks to share in the founding of a Panhellenic colony. EXAM TERMS People: Kimon: Kimon, born in 510 in Athens, Greece, was the son of the Athenian war hero Militades, who was responsible for the victory over the Persians at Marathon in 490. He came to lead the Delian League after its conception in 476, and set out west with a naval fleet that same year with the objectives of clearing the Hellespont, removing Persians from Thrace, and clearing the islands of pirates. He contributed to the decisive victory over Persia at the Battle of Eurymedon, where his military strategy achieved both a land and naval defeat of Xerxes I’s forces. In 464, following a devastating earthquake in Sparta and a subsequent helot rebellion, Kimon sent Athenian troops to assist but was ultimately rejected. Growing anti-Spartan sentiment, and his own tendency to favor amiability with the Spartans, led to his ostracism in 461 BCE. Xenophon: Xenophon was a general and student of Socrates, whose writings include Memorabilia, Cyropaedia and Hellenica. In 401 BCE he joined a group of Greek mercenaries known as the Ten Thousand, who were hired by Cyrus the younger, a Persian Prince, to fight against his brother Artexerxes II in a bid for the Persian throne. Cyrus was killed in battle and they were stranded deep in enemy territory. Xenophon was elected as one of their leaders, and earned a reputation as the “father of the retreat.” In addition, he wrote Oikonomika, a treatise on household management, social order, and ethical treatment/wealth. Konon: Konon was an Athenian naval commander and politician, known for his role in the final stages of the Peloponnesian War. During the Battle of Aegospotami (405 BCE), the final naval engagement of the war, the Athenian fleet was decisively defeated by the Spartan fleet. After the war, Konon was exiled to Persia. He gained favor in Persia and used Persian money to rebuild the Athenian fleet. In 394 BCE during the Battle of Cnidus, Konon led an Athenian-Persian fleet to victory over the Spartans, marking the end of Spartan naval supremacy. This contributed to the collapse of Sparta’s hegemonic position in the Greek-world. Nikias: Nikias was a statesman and general known for moderate leadership and imperialist policy, whose influence over Athenian politics can be attributed to the years 421-413. Following the death of Pericles in 429 BC, he became the principal rival of Kleon and the democrats in the struggle for the political leadership of the Athenian state. His aim was to conclude a peace with Sparta as soon as it could be obtained on terms favorable to Athens. He was largely responsible for the successful negotiations which led to the Peace of Nikias in 421 BC. He also opposed the Athenian imperial ambitions in the Sicilian Expedition (515-513), although he was appointed as one of the three commanders of the expedition. During the expedition, he would be murdered by Syracusans. Pelopidas: Pelopidas was a Theban general and statesman who led the Sacred Band of Thebes, a group of homosexual fighters totalling 300 men. He was active during the 4th century BCE, and helped overthrow Spartan oligarchy in Thebes. Pelopidas was instrumental in planning the Theban forces and tactics employed, especially the use of deep phalanx on the left wing where the Sacred Band was positioned. This proved to be highly effective against the Spartan Army. The Battle of Leuctra broke Sparta’s long-standing dominance over Greece and marked the beginning of Theban ascendancy in Greece. Alkibiades: Alkibiades was a 5th century Athenian general known for his riches, beauty, and being a pupil of Socrates. He created an alliance system made up of communities in the Peloponnesus. This created an existential threat to the Spartans in the Peloponnesian War. In 419 he was not elected general again, but when the Athenians kept losing, he was reinstated as general and plotted to bring Sicily into the alliance system. He is forced to go on the Sicilian Expedition when favor turns against him again, and while on this expedition his enemies take over Athens so he flees to Sparta. He suggested sending help to Syracuse to undermine Athens, and had the Spartans set up a base at Decelea to cut off Athens. After impregnating the queen he fled Sparta and went to Persia, but eventually returned to Athens in 411. Lack of trust in him contributed to Athenian defeat. Demetrios Poliorketes: Demetrios was a Macedonian ruler and the son of Antigonos I, active between 337-283 BCE. From 305-304 BCE, he led an expedition against Rhodes, seeking to expand Macedonian dominance. He employed massive siege warfare. In 288 BCE Demetrios was overthrown by his own troops, he was captured and imprisoned. He was handed over to Seleucus I in 285 BCE, where he spent his final years of his life under house arrest. Dionysios: (The Elder) (Years 432-367 BCE) Ruled Syracuse as a tyrant from 405 BCE until his death in 367 BCE. He rose to power during a time of political instability in Syracuse. Following the death of the previous ruler he seized power through non-constitutional means and declared himself tyrant. He is best known for his military campaigns and efforts to expand Syracuse’s influence through Sicily. Dionysios fought a prolonged war with Carthage. During The Battle of Himera (480 BCE), the Carthaginian forces were initially victorious, but Dionysius led a successful defence of Syracuse, securing the city from Carthaginian control. Dionysios is known for his cruelty and creating a fortress-like palace (The Fortress of Dionysios) his regime also involved considerable Military and social reforms. After his death his son Dionysios II, succeeded him. Brasidas: (Years 445-422 BCE) Was a prominent Spartan general during the Peloponnesian War (431- 404 BCE). Brasidas’ most notable military achievement came in 424 BCE when he led an expedition into Thrace. The key city to the campaign was Amphipolis, an Athenian colony on the Strymon River in Northern Greece, rich with silver mines. Brasidas besieged and captured Amphipolis. In the aftermath Cleon, the Athenian general who had been sent to recapture the city, was killed in battle. His actions helped lead to the Peace of Nikias. In 422 BCE he faced off in a final battle at Megalopolis where he was killed in action. Aratos: Aratos was a notable Greek statesmen and military leader known for his role in the Achaean League. In 271 BCE Sicyon was under the control of the Macedonians. In 251 BCE Aratos returned to Sicyon and overthrew the Macedonian ruler. Artos became a central figure in the Achaean League, rising to prominence as its leader. His efforts were focused on expanding the leagues’ power and influence. He formed an alliance with the Aetolian League and Sparta. In 243 BCE Aratos invited the Romans to intervene in Greek affairs, he believed this was the only way to counter Macedonian power which remained a dominant force under King Philip V. In 243 BCE Aratos managed to capture Corinth from the Macedonian garrison. Despite his earlier success the Achaean League faced increasing interference from Rome and Macedon. Seleukos Nikator: Seleukos Nikator was the founder of the Seleucid Empire, which spanned much of the eastern part of Alexander’s empire including Syria, Iraq and Iran and parts of Central Asia. He served as an officer in Alexander the Great’s army and was one of his most trusted companions. In the War of the Successors he found himself in conflict with Antigonus I. During the Battle of Ipsus (301 BCE) Antigonus was killed, this allowed Seleukos to reclaim control of the east of the empire and Babylon. He rebuilt the Seleucus empire and founded the city of Antioch in 300 BCE. He continued his expansion east into India which put him into conflict with the Maurya Empire. In 305 BCE they signed a treaty which secured him 500 war elephants and an alliance. After his death his empire was divided up amongst his sons and generals. Darius III: Darius III was the King of Persia starting in 336 after the death of Artaxerxes. Faced Alexander's army in 333 at the Battle of Issus in which his forces outnumbered Alexander's by 2 to 1, but Darius was still defeated and forced to flee. Darius also faced Alexander at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 but Alexander and his army were once again victorious and Darius fled again. After this battle, Alexander pretty much had control of the Persian Empire and when Darius died Alexander could consider himself King of Persia. Pyrrhos: Pyrrhos was a king and general of the Molossians known for his wars against Rome known as the Pyrrhic War. In the 280’s BCE, the Romans were expanding their territory throughout the Italian peninsula; they came into contact with Pyrrhos when they interfered with the cities of Magna Graecia. The Greek cities requested Pyrros’ help in their struggle against the Romans. Pyrrohs brought with him experienced Greek soldiers, mercenaries and war elephants and fought several battles against the Romans in which the Romans kept losing and then raising new armies. After these initial battles, Pyrrohs returned to Sicily to help them with their struggles with the Carthaginains. In 275 BCE after a struggle-filled campaign he withdrew from Sicily. Pyrrohs then returned to Italy and in the Battle of Beneventum was defeated by two Roman armies. Demosthenes: Demosthenes was an Athenian statesman and orator, often regarded as the greatest speaker in western history. Demosthenes is known for his powerful speeches against the rise of Macedonian power under King Philip II and his son Alexander the Great. His most famous speeches, Philippics and Olynthiacs, urge the Greek city-states to unite against Macedonian dominance. After the fall of Athens in 338 BCE Demosthenes was exiled but returned to Athens after the death of Alexander and was later accused of treason and executed. Antiochos IV: Antiochos IV was a Hellenistic King of the Seleucid Empire. Known for his attempts to centralize control over the rebellious regions of his empire, especially the Jewish territories in Judea. In 167 BCE, Antiochos IV issued decrees that forbid Jewish religious practices. He also desecrated the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem by erecting an altar to Zeus, which led to a revolt. The Jews were victorious and rededicated their temple. This victory is commemorated in the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah. After his death the Seleucid Empire was further destabilized. Lysimachos: Lysimachos (361-281) was one of the most prominent generals under Alexander the Great and later became a significant Hellenistic ruler. After Alexander's death he was involved in power struggles amongst Alexander's generals known as the Diadochi. Lysimachos initially governed the area of Thrace over time he expanded parts of his empire conquering parts of Asia Minor, and the Aegean and including cities like Byzantium and Sardis. He also briefly controlled Macedonia itself after defeating his rival, Seleucus I in battle in 281 BCE. He is known for being a capable military leader. Thrasyboulos: Thrasyboulos (460-388 BCE) was an influential Athenian general and statesmen, best known for his leadership following the Peloponnesian War. Thrasyboulos led a successful revolt against the Thirty Tyrants, with a small group of exiled Athenians. He seized control of the Athenian fort Phyle, and rallied support from exiles and discontented citizens, and eventually marched on Athens. This led to the restoration of Democracy in Athens, and made him the hero of Athenain democracy. In the years that followed he played a key role in the defense of Athens against Sparta. He also participated in campaigns in Asia Minor to counter Spartan influence. Isokrates: Isokrates (446-338) was an influential orator. He established a famous school in Athens, his curriculum emphasized rhetoric, ethics and practical knowledge. Isokrates’ most notable political ideas was his advocacy of Panhellenism, the idea of uniting the Greek city-states to face common threats such as Persia. In his work Philippos, Isokrates urged King Phillip II of Macedon to take the lead on this unification effort. Flamininus: Flamininus was a Roman general and statesman, best known for his role in the Second Macedonian War (200-179 BCE), where he achieved a decisive victory over King Phillip V of Macedon and effectively ended Macedonian domination in Greece. Flamininus won a crucial victory at the Battle of Cynoscephalae decisively defeating the Macedonian army. After the battle Flaminius declared the “Liberation” of Greece from Macedonian control, and announced that all Greek city-states were free. His diplomatic and military success earned him the title “Philhellene”, meaning “friend of the Greeks.” Artaxerxes- (Ruled 404-358 BCE) Artaxerxes II succeeded his father, Darius II, after a turbulent succession crisis. The most notable event of Artaxerxes II’s reign was the rebellion of his brother Cyrus the Younger in 401 BCE. Cyrus sought to overthrow Artaxerxes and seize the throne. But the rebellion was crushed at the Battle of Cunaxa, where Cyrus was killed. During the Social War (357-355 BCE) Artaxerxes II faced an uprising by his Greek allies, particularly Athens and other Greek states. Artaxerxes was able to maintain control over his territories and suppress the revolt. By the end of his reign the Persian Empire was in decline. Plutarch- (Years 46-119 CE) Was a Greek biographer, essayist and Philosopher, best known for his work “Parallel Lives,” a series of biographies of famous Greek and Roman figures. He is known for a collection of essays known as Moralia. These essays cover a wide range of topics, including philosophy, ethics, religion, and customs. Plutarch was influenced by the philosophy of Plato and his teachings. Parmenion- Phillip II and Alexanders’ top general. Had an Army of 10,000 men and was establishing a bridgehead in Asia-minor at the time of Phillip’s death. Lead in important battles such as the Battle of Granicus 334 BCE and the Battle of Issus 333 BCE. He was known for his experience, caution and traditional approach to warefare. Parmenion was implicated in a conspiracy to kill Alexander. Although he was not involved in the plot he was executed by Alexander as a precautionary measure. Olympias- (Years 375-316 BCE) Was the mother of Alexander the Great and wife of King Phillip II of Macedon. After Phillip’s death, Olympias helped secure Alexander’s position as king. She eliminated rivals and possibly involved herself in the killings of Phillip’s other wives and their children to clear a path for her son. Olympias clashed with Phillip’s new wife, Cleopatra Eurydice. This rivalry led to significant conflict, and Olympias played a role in Cleopatra’s downfall and death. Olympias was eventually executed in 316 BCE by Cassander, one of Alexander’s former generals. Antigonos Gonatas- (Years 320-239 BCE) Most famous for being the King of Macedon. He was the son of Demetrius Poliocretes (a prominent general under Alexander and a later Hellenistic ruler.) Antigonos Gonatas became king of Macedon in 276 BCE, after successfully defeating the Galates, a group of Celtic tribes that had invaded Greece, and their defeat helped secure Antigonos’ rule. After securing the throne Antigonos worked to strengthen his position over Greece. He faced competition from the Ptomelies in Egypt and the Aetolian League in Greece. He worked to maintain Macedonia’s dominance in the Greek cities by supporting factions that were pro-Macedonian, often through the political force of military maneuvering. Antigonos Gonatas is credited with founding the Antigonid dynasty in Macedon, which remained powerful until the Romans conquered Macedon in 168 BCE. He was succeeded by his son Demtrius II. Epaminondas- (Years 418-362 BCE) Was one of the greatest generals and statesmen of ancient Greece. Best known for his leadership in Thebes and his role in reshaping Greek military tactics during the 4th century BCE. During the 4th century BCE the Greek world was divided into powerful city-states, such as Sparta, Athens, and Thebes. The Battle of Leuctra (371 BCE) Epaminondas defeated the once dominant Spartan army. He used revolutionary tactics to defeat the Spartans by deploying the oblique formation, in which he concentrated his forces on a single flank of the enemy, overwhelming them with superior numbers and precision. The Battle of Leuctra shattered Sparta’s hegemony over Greece and marked the rise of Thebes as a major power. Epaminondas also liberated the Massenian helots. Epaminondas sought to establish Theban hegemony over Greece; he launched a series of campaigns to weaken Spartan power and assert Theban dominance. He invaded the Peloponnese and established the Arcadian League. Epaminondas died at the Battle of Mantinea in 362, where he fought against a coalition of Sparta, Athens and other Greek states. Lysandros- (Years 445-395 BCE) Was a prominent Spartan general during the late Peloponnesian War. During the war he served as commander of the Spartan navy. His most significant battle was the Battle of Aegospotami, where his fleet decisively defeated the Athenian navy. This victory ended Athens' ability to continue the war and crippled their naval power. After the war he helped to establish the Thirty Tyrants in Athens, and established pro-Spartan governments in other Greek cities. Lysandros was getting popular and began to pose a threat to the Spartan government, seeking the title of king or supreme ruler. Lysandros led military campaigns against the Persians in Asia Minor but was defeated by the forces of Athenian general Conon at the Battle of Cnidus. He died later that year. Memnon- (of Rhodes, Years 380-333 BCE) Was a prominent Greek mercenary commander and general in service to the Persian Empire during the time of Alexander the Great. He was hired by Persain king Darius III to lead Persian forces in defense of Asia Minor against Alexander’s invasion. He fought at the Battle of the Granicus and was defeated, after this battle he employed a scorched-earth strategy. In 333 BCE while leading Persian forces he died of illness. Philippos III Arrhidaios- (Years 359-317 BCE) Was the half brother of Alexander the Great, and a figurehead king of Macedon during a tumultuous period following Alexander’s death. Phillip III’s life took a dramatic turn after Alexander the Great’s death in 323 BCE. With no clear successor a power vacuum emerged in the empire. Although Phillip III was the legitimate heir, his mental state made him unfit to rule effectively. Both Philip III and Alexander IV, the young son of Alexander the Great, had the title of king. Phillip III had little control over the empire’s actual governance , which was dominated by military leaders and ambitious generals. In 317 BCE, Phillip III was murdered under mysterious circumstances. It was generally believed to be Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great who ordered his execution. Zeno- (of Citium, Years 334-262 BCE) Was a Philosopher and the founder of Stoicism. Zeno began teaching in Athens around 300 BCE in a public colonnade known as the Stoa Poikile, where the name Stoicism is derived. The core of Stoic philosophy as articulated by Zeno, emphasized the idea that virtue is the highest good and that living in accordance with reason and nature is essential to achieving happiness and tranquility. Diogenes of Sinope- (Years 412-323 BCE) Was a famous philosopher from the Cynic school. Diogenes was born in Sinope, modern day Turkey, he left his home after a political scandal and moved to Athens. Diogenes came into contact with Cynic philosopher Antisthenes, who became his mentor. He then fully embraced the Cynic lifestyle, which involved rejecting luxury, metarealism, and conventional social values in favor of simplicity and self-sufficiency. One of his most famous sayings was “I am looking for an honest man”, which encapsulated his disdain for hypocrisy he saw in society. Apollonios of Rhodes- (Time 3rd Century BCE) Was a Greek poet and Scholar. Apollonios was born in Rhodes, he studied at the Library of Alexandria in Egypt. He was influenced by Callimachus and Homer. He is best known for his epic poem, “Argonautica”, which tells the story of Jason and the Argonauts in their quest for the Golden Fleece. The poem blends adventure with a more personal and introspective view of the hero’s journey. Later in Life Apollonios became the head of the Library of Alexandria. Kallimachos- (Years 310-240 BCE) Was a Greek poet, scholar and librarian from Cyrene a colony in North Africa. He later moved to Alexandria, the intellectual hub of the Hellenistic world, where he became one of the leading scholars of the Library of Alexandria. As a scholar, Kallimachos was dedicated to collecting, cataloging and preserving the works of earlier poets and philosophers. During his work as a librarian, he developed a system to catalog authors and books, this is one of his lasting contributions to literary scholarship. Some of his notable works are Aetia, Lambi, and Hymns. Erathosthenes- (of Cyrene, Years 276-194 BCE) Was a Greek mathematician, geographer, astronomer, and poet best known for calculating the circumference of the Earth with remarkable accuracy and for his contributions to geography and the development of the longitude and latitude coordinate system. He was born in Cyrene where he was well educated and then moved to Alexandria. It was there that he interacted with other prominent scholars at the Library of Alexandria and refined his scientific and mathematical skills. His wide-ranging achievements in various fields make him one of the most significant intellectual figures of the Hellenistic period. Kleomenes III- (Years 219 BCE) Was a significant king of Sparta during the Hellenistic period. Known for his ambitious reforms and military campaigns aimed at restoring Sparta to its former glory. Cleomenes III came to power in Sparta in 235 BCE. He redistributed the land giving every Spartan citizen a share. He then centralized power to the king, diminishing the influence of the Gerousia and the Ephors, this strengthened the monarchy. He fought several campaigns against the Achaean League as well as the Macedonian kingdom. In 222 BCE he captured the key city of Megalopolis which was a major blow to the Achaean League and solidified Kleomenes power in the Peloponnesus. After the capture of Megalopolis, he faced the Achaeans and Macedonians at The Battle of Sellasia (222 BCE) which saw Kleomenes defeated. He then fled to Egypt, where he was later implicated in a plot to overthrow the Ptolemaic dynasty, he then was imprisoned and died. Antigonos II Doson- (Years 320-239 BCE) Was a king of the Antigonid dynasty and ruler of Macedon. He is often remembered for his role in stabilizing Macedonia after the death of his predecessor, Antigonus I. The name Doson is a nickname meaning “the giver” or “the bestower,” likely given because of his reputation for generosity. He allied with the Achaean League and went to war with Sparta, defeating Cleomenes III at the Battle of Sellasia. This solidified his power and reputation as a unifier of Greece. He was succeeded by his son, Antigonos III Doson. Philopoimen- (Years 253-183 BCE) Was a Greek statesman and general known for his leadership of the Achaean League. He was born in Megalopolis and spent time with King Pyrrhus learning the military arts. Philopoimen became Strategos (general) in the Achaean League and later its hegemon (leader). He led military reforms introducing light infantry and calvary into the army breaking away from the hoplite based system. During his time in power he was responsible for demolishing the military power of Sparta and reducing it to a non-threatening state. In 183 BCE, while trying to rally support against growing Roman influence he was captured by the Spartans and sentenced to death. ​Places/Events Amphipolis- Was an ancient Greek city located in Macedonia, strategically positioned on the Strymon River near the Aegean Sea, which made it a significant military and commercial hub. The city’s history is marked by its involvement in key events of ancient Greek and Macedonian politics, and it was an important point of conflict due to its border between Greek city-states and the larger Macedonian Kingdom. Alexandria- Alexandria is one of the most famous cities in history, founded by Alexander the Great in 331 BCE in Egypt, and it became a major center of hellenistic culture, learning and trade. The city was planned by Dinocrates, who designed its grid pattern. King Ptolemy I Soter became ruler of Egypt after Alexander's death and Alexandria became its capital. ​ attle of Gaugamela- (October 1, 331 BCE) Between the forces of Alexander the Great B and King Darius III of Persia. The battle took place near the village of Gaugamela in present day northern Iraq. This battle was considered the turning point in Alexander’s conquest of Persia. Alexander’s army was 50,000 strong and Darius' army was 100,000-200,000 strong. During the battle King Darius fled, and the Persian forces were routed. Darius was assassinated soon after marking the end of the Achaemenid Empire. ​ ing's Peace- Signed in 387 BCE, was a peace treaty that ended the Corinthian War K (395-387 BCE). The treaty was dictated by Artaxerxes II and was known as the King’s Peace because it was agreed upon under the authority of the Persian King. All Greek city-states were declared autonomous and free to govern themselves, where no city state could interfere in the internal affairs of another. The treaty recognized Sparta’s hegemony over the Peloponnese. The treaty also granted Persias’ control over Asia Minor. The treaty brought a final end to the Corinthian War calling for an end to hostilities between Sparta and the anti-Spartan coalition of Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Argos. The King’s Peace led to the rise of Thebes as a major power in the Greek world. ​ attle of Mantinea- Was a crucial battle fought in 362 BCE near the city of Mantinea, B located in the Peloponnese. It was a significant conflict in the power struggle between the Greek city-states, particularly involving Thebes and its allies against Sparta, Athens and their respective coalitions. Thebes led a force of 30,000 soldiers including the Sacred Band. Sparta, Athens and other allies had a similar sized army of around 30,000 men. Both sides included Calvary, Infantry and Hoplites. Thebes won the battle but it was a pyrrhic victory and Epaminondas died in the battle. Thebes lost its dominance over Greece. t​he Thirty- The Thirty Tyrants was a pro-Spartan oligarchic government installed in Athens following the city’s defeat in the Peloponnesian War. The Thirty were appointed in 404 BCE with the backing of Spartan general Lysander. This short lived regime lasted for about eight months but had a profound impact on Athenian democracy and political life. The Thirty were led by Critias, a former student of Socrates and an opponent to Athenian democracy. To maintain control The Thirty created a private militia of 300 supporters who acted as enforcers. The regime was marked by brutality and oppression. In 403 BCE Thrasybulus and the democratic faction launched an attack on Athens with the support of Theban and Megarian forces. The Thirty tyrants were overthrown. After this Athenain democracy was restored. Rhodes- Rhodes is a Greek island in the Aegean Sea, known for its strategic importance, rich history, and cultural legacy. Situated at the crossroads between Europe, Asia, and Africa. On the island of Rhodes was a giant statue of the sun god Helios known as the Colossus of Rhodes and was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. After the death of Alexander the Great Rhodes emerged as a major maritime and commercial power during the Hellenistic period. In 305 BCE Demetrius Poliocretes, a Macedonian general, laid siege to Rhodes in an attempt to weaken its influence, Rhodes successfully resisted. 3​ 0 Years Peace- Was a treaty signed in 446 BCE between Athens and Sparta marking the temporary end of hostilities between the two powers before the Peloponnesian War. Athens and Sparta agreed to maintain the existing political and territorial status quo, meaning they would not interfere in each other's spheres of influence. This also prohibited Athens and Sparta from taking aggressive military action against each other or their allies. I​ onian War- Or Social War 357-355 BCE was a conflict between the Athenian Empire and a coalition of Athens allies, particularly those in Aegean and Ionian regions, including Chios, Lesbos, Rhodes and Samos, This war marked a significant episode in the later years of Athens’ imperial decline. Several key allies began to resent Athenian domination. These states including Samos formed a coalition to oppose Athens. The war began with the revolt of Chios in 357 BCE which was later joined by Lesbos, Rhodes and Samos. The Athenains responded quickly, sending a fleet to put down the rebellion. However Athens was still recovering from the Peloponnesian War and had other distractions including its involvement in the Macedonian Wars. During The Battle of Chios (355 BCE) Athenian naval forces were defeated by the allied forces marking a significant blow to Athenian prestige and naval power. The Persians gave support to the rebels to undermine Athens. The war ended in 355 BCE with Athens unable to reestablish control over its allies. ​ attle of Kyroupedion- Was a significant military engagement fought in 281 BCE B between the forces of Seleucus I Nicator and Lysimachus. The Battle occured in Asia Minor over control over the remnants of Alexander’s empire. Both sides brought large experienced armies including Macedonian Phalanx troops, calvary and Allied forces. The battle ended in a decisive victory for Seleucus. Lysimacus was killed in battle and his army was decisively defeated. Lysimicus’ territories including Thrace and parts of Asia Minor were absorbed into Seleucus’s Empire. 3​ rd Sacred War- (355-346 BCE) Was a significant conflict fought between Delphi-based religious centers and a coalition of Greek states, most notably Phocis, against the Thebains and their allies, led by the powerful Theban state and its regional allies. The war centered around control of the Delphic sanctuary and the associated resources. The war ended in 346 BCE with a negotiated settlement. Phonics was forced to withdraw from the Delphic Amphictyony, although this time under the hegemony of Thebes. The Thebans consolidated their power in central Greece and had a period of political dominance. Aigospotamoi- Is a small river or rivers issuing into the Hellespont. At the Battle of Aigospotamoi (405 BCE) Was the final decisive naval battle of the Peloponnesian War between the Athenian and Spartan fleet, supported by the Persian Empire. It resulted in a catastrophic defeat for Athens and effectively ended the war. The Athenians were under the command of Conon on the other hand Sparta with Persian backing had strengthened its naval position under Admiral Lysander. The Athenian fleet numbered 180 ships and was stationed at Aigospotamoi to block Spartan access to vital supply routes. Lysander had about 150 ships and attacked the unexpecting Athenians catching them off guard. The Athenian fleet was decisively defeated. After the Battle of Aigospotamoi the Athenians were unable to continue the war and surrendered. ​ attle of Kynoskephalai- Was a pivotal battle in 179 BCE between the forces of Rome B and the Kingdom of Macedon under King Philip V, during the Second Macedonian War. The Roman army, commanded by Flamininus numbered around 26,000 men including legionaries, auxiliaries, and cavalry. Philip V’s army was 30,000 men including the Macedonian phalanx, cavalry and allied forces. The battle was fought on hilly terrain where the Macedonian Phalanx struggled to maintain formation, the legionaries were better suited to this type of battle. The Romans broke through the Macedonian lines and Philip V tried to unsuccessfully rally his troops. The Romans emerged victorious ending the Second Macedonian War and marked the beginning of Roman supremacy in the region. ​ orinthian War- (Years 385-387 BCE) Fought between Sparta and a coalition of Thebes, C Athens, Argos and Corinth with the backing of the Persian Empire. Sparta’s hegemony over Greece after the Peloponnesian War was seen as oppressive by many Greek city-states. In response the coalition of Athens, Thbebes, Corinth and Argos formed with Persian backing. Sparta initially had some success in the war under the leadership of Agesilaus II but was unable to hold off the coalition. During the Battle of Coronea (394 BCE) Theban forces led by Pelopidas decisively defeated the Spartans and broke Spartan military supremacy. At sea the Athenian navy won the important Battle of Cnidus (394 BCE) which broke the Spartan navy. In 387 BCE The Peace of Antalcidas known as the King’s Peace was signed in favor of Sparta. This effectively ended Sparta's dominance over Greece but maintained its power in the Peloponnese. The Corinthian War helped pave the way for Theban hegemony. ​ attle of Leuktra- (371 BCE) Was a decisive confrontation between the Theban army led B by Epaminondas and Spartan forces, commanded by King Cleombrotus I. Thebes began to reassert its independence under the leadership of Epaminondas after the Corinthian War. Epaminondas revolutionized Greek warfare by introducing innovative tactics at Leuktra. He concentrated his forces on the left wing in an oblique formation where the most decisive part of the battle would take place. The Phalanx on the left wing was as much as 50 ranks deep, this broke the Spartan lines on the weakest side. The Spartan right wing collapsed and Spartan King Cleobrotus was killed in the fighting. Thebes emerged victorious and Spartan military prestige was shattered, Sparta lost many elite hoplites. Pella- Was the ancient capital of the Kingdom of Macedon and the Birthplace of Alexander the Great. Located in the northern part of Greece, near the Aegean Sea, Pella played a crucial role in the history of the Greek world, particularly during the reigns of the Argead dynasty, which included notable kings such as Phillip II and his son Alexander the Great. Phillip II significantly expanded and beautified Pella, turning it into a magnificent city. Under Phillip II’s reign Pella became a major political, military, and cultural center of Greece. Phillip II built a palace in Pella, and the city was redesigned with wide streets, grand public buildings and impressive houses. ​ attle of Pydna- (June 22, 168 BCE) Fought between the forces of Rome and Macedon. B The Third Macedonian War began in 171 BCE when Perseus went to war against Rome in an attempt to secure Macedon’s independence and restore its dominance. Rome had already defeated Macedon in the first two wars. The Roman commander was Lucius Aemilius Paullus. The Macedonian Army consisted of 40,000 men including a Macedonian Phalanx and calvary. The Roman forces consisted of 30,000 men with legionaries and cavalry. Paullus deployed his forces with the Phalanx in the center and calvary on the wings, the terrain at Pydna was rough and uneven which worked as an advantage to the Romans. The Romans were able to break through the center of the Macedonian Phalanx. King Perseus was forced to retreat. The Macedonians suffered 20,000 casualties. The Romans captured him and his family and brought him in chains to Rome. This ended Macedonian power and the rest of Greece was brought into Rome in the following decades. Illyria- Was a region in the western part of the Balkans, roughly corresponding to modern-day Albania, parts of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Kosovo. It was inhabited by a group of tribes known as Illyrians, who were known for their warrior culture and resistance to foreign domination, particularly the Greeks and Romans. Illyria was located along the Adriatic Sea and extended inland into the Balkan Peninsula. It bordered regions inhabited by the Greeks to the south, the Pannonians to the north, and the Thracians to the east. ​ attle of Granikos- (334 BCE) Was a significant military engagement fought between the B forces of Alexander the Great and the Persian Empire, specifically the Satraps of Asia Minor. It was the first major battle of Alexander’s campaign to conquer the Persian Empire. In 334 BCE Alexander crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor with an Army of 40,000 soldiers including infantry, cavalry and archers, his army was highly disciplined and experienced. The Persian force numbered 40,000-100,000 and included Greek mercenary hoplites under the command of Menmon. The battle took place near the Granikos river in Asia Minor. The Persians deployed their forces in a typical fashion, Alexander deployed his heavy cavalry on the right flank. The battle progressed with Alexander leading a charge with his Companion cavalry into the Persian center. The Macedonians broke through the Persian lines and Alexander's calvary pursued the Persian cavalry. The Macedonian victory was overwhelming, thousands of Persians were killed. After the battle, Alexander continued his march south along the coast of Asia Minor, capturing key cities and establishing dominance in the region. Olynthos- Olynthos was an ancient Greek city located in the northern part of Chalcidice (modern-day northern Greece), on the Kassandra Peninsula. It played a significant role in Greek history, particularly during the classical period; Olynthos was known for its strategic location, its military and political importance, and its eventual destruction at the hands of Phillip II of Macedon. ​ attle of Issos- (Year 333 BCE) Between the forces of Alexander the Great of Macedon B and King Darius III of Persia. The battle took place in Issos (in modern-day Turkey), in a narrow plain between the mediterranean sea and the mountains of the region. This location was important because it limited the use of Darius’ massive calvary forces and played to Alexander’s strengths in maneuverability and battlefield tactics. Alexander's army consisted of 40,000 troops including Companion Cavalry, infantry and archers. Darius’ army ranged from 50,000-100,000 soldiers, it included elite calvary and Greek Mercenaries. Darius deployed his army with his calvary on the wings, and hoped to use his overwhelming numbers to encircle Alexander. Alexander placed his elite Companion Cavalry on the right wing and infantry in the center. Alexander led a decisive charge directly at Darius. Darius panicked and fled the battlefield, leaving behind his family that were captured by Alexander. Persian casualties were heavy and Macedonian casualties were very light. ​ eace of Nikias- (421 BCE) Was a treaty signed between Athens and Sparta during the P Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) Named after Athenian general Nikias who was instrumental in the treaty. The terms of peace were, restoration of territories. Athens and Sparta would regain their traditional territories. Return of prisoners. Mutual non-aggression, Athens and Sparta agreed to not attack each other for a period of 50 years. Alliances remained intact, each side would continue to honor its existing alliances. The peace agreement quickly broke down, Athens had a difficult time giving up its recently acquired territories, particularly Amohipolis, additionally Sparta was frustrated by Athens’ continued influence over its allies. The breakdown of the peace culminated in the disastrous Sicilian expedition (415-413 BCE), which led to the complete defeat of the Athenian fleet in Sicily. Renewed fighting between Athens and Sparta, as well as the involvement of other powers like Persia, ultimately led to the resumption of hostilities, with the war continuing until 404 BCE when Athens was ultimately defeated. ​ attle of Ipsos- (301 BCE) Was a decisive battle between the forces of several of B Alexander the Great’s former generals, known as the Diadochi (the “successors”), who fought for control of his vast empire after his death in 323 BCE. The battle was fought in Phrygia (modern-day central Turkey) and was a key moment in the Wars of the Diadochi. The primary contenders at the time of the battle were Seleucus I Nicator, Lysimachus, Ptolemy I Soter, Antigonus I Monopthalmus, and his son Demetrius I. These leaders had carved out territories for themselves in the former empire of Alexander. Antigonus I Monophthalmus had an army of 75,000 soldiers. Opposing him was a coalition led by Seleucus I, Lysimachus, and others, which had a combined force of 50,000 soldiers. The alliance included Ptolemy’s fleet. The two armies met near the town of Ipsos. Antigonus deployed his forces in a traditional manner with a strong infantry center and calvary on the flanks. Seleucus had a key advantage in the form of war elephants. The battle turned into a rout for Antigonous whose forces were overwhelmed by the combined might of the coalition. During the battle Antigonus I Monophthalmus was killed and his death marked the collapse of his forces and his son Demetrius narrowly escaped. Seleucus I emerged as one of the principal winners. He secured much of Asia Minor, Syria and Mesopotamia, laying the foundations for the Seleucid Empire. Lysimachos took control of much of Thrace and parts of Asia Minor. Ptolemy I retained control of Egypt and its territories in the eastern Mediterranean. Cassander, who was not directly involved in the battle, consolidated his power in Macedonia. ​ eace of Apamea- (188 BCE) Was a significant treaty that ended the Roman-Seleucid P War (192-188 BCE) between the Roman Republic and the Seleucid Empire, under King Antiochus III (aka Antiochus the Great). The treaty was signed at the town of Apamea in modern-day Turkey. The terms of the peace were harsh and marked a significant blow to the Seleucid Empire. The Selecids were forced to surrender most of their territory in Asia Minor, Syria, Ionia and the Aegean Islands. Antiochus had to reduce his army to no more than 10,000 infantry and 500 calvary and was also prohibited from maintaining a navy. The Seleucids also had to pay a huge indemnity of 15,000 talents over the course of 12 years to Rome, The treaty also required Antiochus to provide his son Antiochus IV as a hostage to Rome. The treaty effectively removed the Seleucid Empire as a major military threat to Rome’s growing influence in the eastern mediterranean. The Seleucids were diplomatically isolated, and their ability to assert authority over the Greek states or challenge Rome in the region was diminished. ​ eleukeia on the Tigris- Was founded around 305 BCE by Sekeucus I, who established S the city as the new Capital of his empire, replacing Babylon. Seleucus chose the site on the Tigris River, near the old city of Babylon, due to its strategic location and access to important trade routes that connected the Mediterranean with the heart of Asia. This also made it a key point for controlling trade and communication between the eastern and western parts of the Seleucid Empire. The Tigris River was also vital for transporting goods and resources throughout the region. The city was designed to serve as a vibrant metropolis, attracting Greek settlers and integrating Greek culture with the local Mesopotamian traditions. It was part of the Seleucid effort to spread Hellenistic culture throughout the empire. ​ attle of Sellasia- (222 BCE) Was a pivotal confrontation during the Hellenistic period, B fought between the Achaean League, led by Cleomenes III of Sparta, and a coalition of of Macedonian forces under Antigonus III Doson, supported by the Achaean League and Messenian allies. It was a crucial event that marked the end of Spartan dominance in the Peloponnese and shifted the power in favor of the Achaean League. Cleomenes III sought to break the power of the Achaean League. King Antigonus III Doson, the king of Macedon, sought to assert Macedonian influence in the Greek world after the death of his cousin King Philip V. Antigonus had provided military support to the Acheans in response to Cleomenes III aggression and now will intervene directly to defend the Achaean League and stop Spartan domination. The Battle was fought near the town of Sellasia, located in the northern peloponnese. The Spartans were defeated, and Cleomenes’ fled to Egypt. ​For Short Essays (Page Long) kleruchy-In Athens the term Kleruchy referred to a specific settlement policy where citizens were granted land in newly conquered territories. These settlers were called “kleruchs.” The most notable klerchy system occurred in the 5th century, particularly under the leadership of Athens in the aftermath of the Persian Wars. As Athens grew in power and influence, particularly through its control of the Delian League, it expanded its territory and influence in the Aegean Region. The kleruchy system allowed Athens to strengthen its control over these newly acquired territories while also rewarding its citizens land. Kleruchs were granted plots of land in these areas, and they became the legal owners of the land, although the land remains in the possession of the state (Athens), and could be reclaimed if the need arose. Kleruchs maintained their citizenship, right to vote and ability to participate in Athenian politics even though they didn't live in Athens. Many kleruchs were required to provide military service to Athens. Unlike many other colonies where settlers might not retain full legal rights in their homeland, kleruchs retained the ownership of the land they were given, which could often be passed down to their heirs. One of the most well-known examples of kleruchy settlements was on the island of Delos, which Athens conquered during the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Athenian kleruchs were sent there, and the island became an important base for Athenian operations in the eastern Mediterranean. Similarly Thasos and other parts of the Aegean also had kleruchy settlements. Parrhesia- Is a term in ancient Greek that translates to “free speech,” or “frankness” The concept became especially prominent in Athenian Democracy, where citizens were encouraged to speak openly in the Assembly or in public discussions. Parrhesia is often associated with the idea of telling the truth. The person who engages in Parrhesia is someone who speaks openly about their thoughts or observations, even if the truth might be uncomfortable, inconvenient, or politically dangerous. There is a moral and ethical duty in relation to Parrhesia, it isn't just about blunt honesty; it is also about commitment to the greater good. Philosophers like Socrates (who was a central figure in discussions of parrhesia) saw parrhesia as an ethical responsibility– speaking out in a way that serves truth, justice, and the well-being of society. In the Stoic tradition, parrhesia also took on an ethical dimension. For Stoic philosophers like Epictetus and Seneca, perrhesia was seen as an expression of moral integrity and self-control. It was about speaking truthfully from a place of inner virtue, regardless of external consequences. The Athenian statesman and orator Demosthenes used parrhesia to address the growing power of Macedon un King Phillip II. Periplous- Is a Greek word meaning a type of maritime journey or voyage around a coastline or sea route. The term refers specifically to the practice of navigating along the coastlines, rather than open-sea voyages. Ancient sailors relied on coastal navigation, using landmarks, the position of the stars, and other natural signs to guide ships safely. The periplous was vital for trade and exploration, as it provided valuable information on routes, distances, and possible ports of call. The ancient Mediterranean world, for instance, relied heavily on such texts to maintain its intricate network of trade and communication. In times of war, knowledge of coastal routes was essential for naval commanders, who needed to understand the terrain, potential ports, and places of refuge or resupply. This information could be critical for strategic planning, especially during long naval campaigns. ​ itolian League- Was a federal union of several city-states and tribes in ancient Greece, A primarily in the region of Aetolia, which is located in the western part of central Greece. The League existed from the 4th century BCE to the 1st century BCE. It was formed as a loose confederation of several Aetolian towns and tribes that sought to cooperate for mutual defense and political influence. The League was initially a tribal federation of Aetolian tribes and later expanded to include neighboring territories. Over time, it evolved into a more structured political entity. The league was organized around assemblies, with representatives from the member states. Key elements of the League’s structure included: The General Assembly: The highest decision making body, consisting of representatives from member states. The Federal Magistrates: These included the Strategos (military leader) and other officials, who were elected by the general assembly. The Aitolian League also had a constitution that outlined the rights and responsibilities of its members. The League was often involved in several conflicts with other Greek states, such as the Achaean League, the Macedonian Kingdom, and various city-states like Thebes and Athens. The Aitolian League formed an important alliance with Rome in the 2nd century BCE. In the aftermath of the Aitolian Leagues defeat in the Roman-Achaean war (146 BCE), where they sided with the Achaean League against Rome. The Aitolian League ceased to exist as a significant political entity. The region was absorbed into the growing Roman Empire. Metics- Were foreign residents who lived in Greek city-states but were not full citizens. While they were often granted some rights, metics did not have full political privileges of native born citizens. They were an important and numerous group in many Greek cities, especially Athens, where they played a significant role in the economy and society. In Athens, metics were often from other parts of Greece (like Ionia, Thrace, or Macedonia), as well as foreign regions such as Egypt, Phoenicia, and Persia. In some cases, metics were required to serve in the military in times of war. Metics often had to pay special taxes, such as the metic tax in Athens, an annual fee for living in the city. Metics could generally own property and engage in business. Some notable metics were Philosopher Aristotle and playwright Euripides. Stasis- It is often used to describe internal political turmoil, especially when factions or groups within society vie for power, resulting in instability, violence, or even civil war. Stasis typically involved internal political struggles between different factions within a city state. These factions might be divided by class, wealth, political ideology, or personal rivalries. Factions could involve groups like aristocracy vs. the democrats, the elite vs. the common people, or even different political parties or military leaders. These struggles could escalate into violent conflict as each side tried to impose its will on the city-state’s political system. Periods of economic hardship–such as famine, war, or heavy taxation–could stir up social tensions, leading to stasis. The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) is a notable example where Athens’ internal divisions contributed to stasis. Thucydides' account of the stasis at Corcyra (427 BCE) illustrates how stasis could lead to full civil conflict. In Athens, the revolutionary political upheavals during the Peloponnesian War saw a series of shirting power between democratic and oligarchic factions. The oligarchic coup of 411 BCE and the eventual restoration of democracy in 403 BCE were major events that exemplified stasis and the resulting instability. the Mouseion- The Mouseion of Alexandria, founded in the early 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus as part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt. This Mouseion became one of the world's first true research institutes and intellectual hubs, and was closely linked to the Great Library of Alexandria. The Mousin was essentially a university or research center, where scholars gathered to study, discuss, and develop ideas across various fields, such as philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, geography, literature, and history. It functioned similarly to a modern academic institution. The Mouseion, like the library of Alexandria, was under the patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty, and it is likely that scholars in the institution were supported financially by the state. This allowed them to dedicate their lives to intellectual pursuits. Among the prominent scholars associated with the Mouseion were Euclid (the famous mathematician), Archimedes, Eratosthenes (who calculated the Earth’s circumference), Hipparchus, and Ptolemy (the astronomer and geographer). Homeric scholars and others working on the preservation of ancient texts were affiliated with the institution. Achaian League- Was a federal political alliance of Greek city-states in the region of Achaea, located in the northern part of the Peloponnese. The Achaean League was initially formed in the early 3rd century BCE as a defensive alliance between the city states of Achaea. The origins of the Achaean League can be traced to a reorganization of Achaea’s political structure around 250 BCE, during the reign of Aratus of Sicyon, who is often credited with reestablishing the League's power and its political cohesion after it had been largely inactive in the earlier part of the Hellenistic period. Some of the key elements of its structure include: The Federal Assembly (Synedrion), the highest decision making body of the league. It was responsible for making decisions, such as those related to war, diplomacy and the election of officials. The Federal Magistrates, these included several officers such as the Strategoi (military leaders) and the Prytaneis (executive officers). The Federal Court, a judicial body that resolved disputes between member cities and maintained legal order in the League. The League also had a constitution. Under Artus and his successors leadership the league expanded to include many cities in the Peloponnese and beyond. Smaller cities that wanted protection from Sparta and Macedon would join. Key cities that joined the League during this time period were Corinth, Megalopolis, and Patras. The Third Macedonian War (171-168 BCE) and the Roman-Achaean War (146 BCE) were decisive moments for the league. While the Achaean League initially attempted to resist Roman influence, the Romans eventually intervened. In 146 BCE, following the Battle of Corinth, Rome decisively crushed the resistance of the Achaean League. Macedonian phalanx- Was a revolutionary military formation developed by Phillip II of Macedon in the 4th century BCE and later refined by his son Alexander the Great. The sarissa was the most iconic feature of the Macedonian Phalanx, a long spear or pike, which could range from 16-18 feet in length. This was much longer than the typical hoplite spear, which was typically around 7-8 feet long. The long length of the sarissa allowed the soldiers to strike the enemies at a distance, while also forming an impenetrable wall of spear points facing forward. The Macedonian Phalanx typically formed with rows or ranks of soldiers 16-32 deep. The soldiers of the Phalanx were typically hoplites or heavy infantry, carrying shields typically smaller than the traditional hoplon shield. The Phalanx was extremely effective in formation, particularly against enemy cavalry or infantry that did not have the same reach or density of men. One of the Macedonian Phalanx’s greatest strengths was its ability to work in tandem with calvary, particularly the Companion Cavalry, which was highly effective under Alexander’s leadership. Sympoliteia- Allowed citizens of one city to gain the rights and privileges of another city, effectively creating a form of dual citizenship between particular states. Unlike other forms of alliances, a sypoliteia typically established a more profound and institutionalized relationship between cities involved. The cities would often share key political functions, sometimes even creating a joint assembly or magistrates to oversee mutual interests. The arrangement was typically formalized through a treaty or agreement between the cities, outlining the terms of cooperation, mutual rights, and obligations. An example of Sympoliteia was the relationship between Athens and the island of Delos. The Athenians granted Delian citizens certain rights, including participation in Athenian political life. hetairoi-The Hetairoi were the Calvary elite of the Macedonian army. They were typically noblemen or high-status individuals chosen for their skills and loyalty, often from aristocratic or royal backgrounds. They fought as heavily armored cavalry and were instrumental in executing key tactical maneuvers during battle, such as flanking and pursuing enemy forces. They formed the core of Alexander’s cavalry, often stationed on the right wing of the army. They were used to break the enemy’s lines during battle. Members of the Hetairoi were among the highest ranking soldiers in the Macedonian army, and their service was rewarded with significant privileges. The Hetairoi were divided into smaller units known as squadrons. Each unit was generally commanded by a high-ranking officer or nobleman. The leader of the Hetairoi was the “Hetararch”, who commanded the entire calvary division. The Hetairoi were known for their shock tactics, charging the enemy with tremendous force. They often used the sarissa and short sword for close combat. They also wore heavy armor, including a helmet, shield, and sometimes chainmail or bronze cuirasses. The Hetairoi were more than just soldiers; they were also personal companions and friends of the king. Stoics- The Stoic philosophers of ancient Greece emphasized rationality, self-control, and virtue as a path to true happiness. Founded by Zeno of Citium around 300 BCE in Athens, Stoicism taught that external circumstances and emotions should not control one's inner peace. Instead, individuals should cultivate wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance to live in harmony with nature and reason. The central idea of stoicism is that while we cannot control how we respond to them. This focus on inner resilience and the development of moral character made stoic philosophy influential not only in ancient Greece but also in Roman thought, particularly through figures like Epicetus, Seneca, and emperor Marcus Aurilieus. Stoicism has had a lasting impact on philosophy, psychology, and modern self help ideas. Isopoliteia- An ancient Greek term that means “equal citizenship.” or “shared citizenship.” It refers to an agreement between different city-states (or polities) where citizens of one city-state are granted the same rights, privileges, and responsibilities as the citizens of another city-state. This could include the right to live, work, trade, or participate in political life within the other city-state. An example of isopolitieia can be seen in the 5th century BCE when Athens granted isopolitieia to several other cities, including some of the islands in the Aegean, to encourage loyalty and enhance trade and military cooperation. The concept highlights the importance of citizenship and political identity in the ancient Greek world, and also reflects the flexibility of Greek city-states in managing their relationships with one another. Isopolitieia can also be seen in the formation of confederations like the Aitolian and Achaean Leagues. Galatians- Were a celtic people who originally came from central Europe. They migrated to Asia Minor around the 3rd century BCE, where they settled in a region that became known as Galatia, roughly corresponding to the central part of modern-day Turkey. The Galatians were in conflict and cooperation with the Macedonian kingdom. Macedon under its king Antigonus II Gonatas (reigned 276-239 BCE), faced the Galatians as they expanded into Asia Minor. In 278 BCE a large Galatian force crossed into Asia Minor. The Macedonian king Attalus I successfully repelled the Galatians and defeated them in the Battle of Elephants in 275 BCE. Though the Galatians were not initially part of the Greek speaking world, their interactions with Greek cities and states–especially during the Hellenistic period–led to a certain degree of cultural exchange, despite their initial military conflicts. Over time, the Galatians blended their traditions with Greek culture, though they maintained distinct Celtic characteristics, especially in warrior society. Gymnasion- Was a public building or complex dedicated to physical exercise, training and education. It played an essential role in Greek society, particularly in the cultivation of both the body and the mind. Athletes often trained without clothing in the gymnasion. The Gymnasiarchos were in charge of the gymnasion’s upkeep. They spent their own money on the gymnasion and it was an honored position in ancient Greek society. The gymnasion was primarily used for physical training, especially for young men and boys. They did activities such as wrestling, running, and boxing. The emphasis on physical fitness was because Greek society was a warrior culture and every man was expected to be able to defend the Polis. This idea continued throughout the Hellenistic period when Greek states moved on to the use of professional armies. There was also expected to be a balance between physical beauty and moral goodness. The gymnasion also served as a social space where citizens could gather, interact, and discuss political or cultural matters. They were central to Greek civic life, contributing to the development of communal identity and values. Most gymnasion included bathing facilities, reflecting the Greek value placed on cleanliness and hygiene, which were integral to physical well-being. The gymnasion typically featured an open-air courtyard for exercises and a covered area for lectures or shaded activities. There would also be rooms for changing, bathing, and sometimes even a library space or other educational functions. These structures were often large and impressive, reflecting the importance of the gymnasion in Greek culture. Asylia- referred to the sanctuary or protection from legal or political harm, often granted to certain places or individuals, particularly in religious or sacred contexts. One of the most important forms of asylia was the protection offered to sacred or religious sites, such as temples, altars, and the territories around them. These areas were considered invulnerable to military attack, punishment, or interference by any Greek state. For example places like Delphi, Dekos, and the Olympic sanctuary enjoyed asylia, making them neutral zones where individuals could seek refuge from their enemies. The granting of asylia could sometimes serve as a diplomatic gesture, meant to protect people or preserve neutrality in certain conflicts. Some city-states even extended asylia to entire groups of people (like refugees or those fleeing political unrest), offering a form of sanctuary that transcended ordinary legal protections. Sarapis- Was a deity in the ancient world, particularly popular in Hellenistic Egypt. He was a syncretic god– created by a combination of elements of both Greek and Egyptian religious traditions. The creation of Sarapis was part of the Ptolemaic effort to unify the Greek and Egyptian populations of Egypt after Alexander the Great’s conquest and subsequent Hellenistic rule. Ptolemy I sought to blend Greek and Egyptian religious practices to promote political unity, and thus Sarapis emerged as a god that appealed to both cultures. He resembled Greek deities like Zeus or Hades. His image was usually that of a powerful, kingly figure. His Egyptian qualities were linked to Osiris, the Egyptian god of the afterlife, and Apis, the sacred bull worshipped in Memphis. Sarapis was seen as a ruler of the underworld and provider of fertility, healing, and protection. Cynics- Were a philosophical school in ancient Greece that advocated for living in accordance with nature, rejecting societal conventions, and embracing self-sufficiency and simplicity. The Cynic movement is most famously associated with the philosopher Diogenes of Sinope (412-323 BCE), though its roots can be traced back to Antisthenes, a student of Socrates. Diogenes is said to have wandered the streets of Athens during the daytime with a lanturn, proclaiming he was “looking for an honest man”--a critique of the moral corruption he saw around him. When the Macedonian king Alexander the Great visited Diogenes and offered to grant him any wish, Diogenes famously replied, “yes, stand out in the sunlight.” This was a sharp rebuke of Alexander’s power and demonstration of the Cynic belief in the insignificance of worldly power. Diogenes is said to have lived in a large ceramic jar or barrel in Athens, embodying his rejection of material wealth and social status. Sarissa- Was a long Spear or pike used primarily by the Macedonian army, particular under Philip II and his son Alexander the Great. It was a key element to the Macedonian Phalanx formation and played a significant role in the military success of the Macedonian Empire during the 4th century BCE. The Sarissa was typically 14-18 feet long. This allowed Macedonian soldiers to strike enemies at a distance. It was made of wood with a metal spear head at the end. Some Sarissa had a counter balance at the opposite end to help with counter balance. Soldiers called sarissophoroi (sarissa bearers) would use the sarissa to create a dense wall of pikes. The soldiers would use the sarissa to form a “porcupine” formation, where the spears would be arranged in multiple rows, offering a nearly unbreakable line of defense. Epicureans- Were followers of Epicurus, an ancient Greek philosopher who founded the school of philosophy known as Epicureanism in the 4th century BCE. Epicureanism in the 4th century BCE emphasized the pursuit of happiness and tranquility through cultivation of wisdom, friendship, and the avoidance of pain and anxiety. It was a philosophy focused on pleasure and the good life, though it was not a philosophy of indulgence, but rather one of moderation and understanding. Although Epicureanism was often misunderstood as a philosophy of hedonistic indulgence, it was actually a doctrine that advocated for self discipline and moderation in the pursuit of pleasure. Over time the philosophy influenced other schools of thought, particularly Stoicism and later hedonistic philosophers. Isis- Refers to the ancient Egyptian goddess, whose worship spread throughout the Greek and Roman worlds. Isis originated in Egyptian mythology as the daughter of the earth god Geb and the sky goddess Nut, and sister-wife to Osiris, the god of the afterlife. She played a key role in the myth of Osiris, helping to resurrect him after he was killed by his brother Set. Isis was considered a protector of the dead and the living, often invoked for her healing powers. She was believed to have powerful magic, capable of healing and preventing harm. Isis was also associated with motherhood and care of children. She was frequently depicted as a mother, especially in her nurturing of her son Horus, the god of the sky. Known for her knowledge of magic, Isis was called upon for protection, rituals, and spells. In the Egyptian tradition, she was considered one of the most powerful deities because of her magical abilities. Isis was often depicted as a woman with a throne-shaped crown on her head, representing her role as the queen of the gods, or with a solar disk encircled by cow horns, symbolizing her connection to the sun god Ra. Kybele- Was an ancient Anitolian mother goddess, later adopted into Greek and Roman religions. In the Greek world, Kybele became associated with the earth, nature, and wild animals. The Greeks also identified her with the goddess Rhea, the mother of the Olympian gods. Kybele’s consort, Attis, was a young man who, according to myth, died and was resurrected. In summary, Kybele was a goddess of fertility, nature and protection. Her cult involved ecstatic and mystical practices, and her associations with life, death, and rebirth made her a symbol of both nature’s cycles and divine protection. Synedrion- Referred to as a council or assembly. That was a key element of governance, particularly in city-states like Athens or other regions in the Hellenistic world. These councils were responsible for making decisions on a range of political, judicial and religious matters, often acting as deliberative bodies that influenced governance and law. After the conquest of Alexander the Great, Greek influence spread throughout the eastern Mediterranean and Asia, bringing with it Greek political and administrative structures. In the Hellenistic world, Synedrion continued to play a role in local governance, particularly in that had been conquered by Alexander and were now ruled by his successors (the Diadochi). In Hellenistic kingdoms (e.g. Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Empire), the Synedrion often functioned as an advisory council to the king. These councils often included generals, nobles, and high-ranking officials. Their role was to advise the ruler on key issues of state, military affairs, and legislation, though the power of the king remained supreme. Agoranomos- Referred to the public official in charge of overseeing the Agora–the central marketplace or assembly area in Greek cities. The role of the Argoranmomos was important in managing the economic, legal, and social activities that took place in the Agora, which was a vital part of daily life in many Greek city-states. They ensured the proper functioning of trade, regulating the exchange of goods, and ensuring that merchants adhered to established standards. This involved supervising weight, quality, and pricing of goods, to maintain fairness in transactions. The Argoranmos was responsible for maintaining order and safety in the Agora, which could become a gathering place for crowds, especially during festivals or political events. They ensured that public markets were conducted peacefully and could take action against disorderly behavior. The Agoranomos had some judicial functions related to the marketplace. They might settle minor disputes concerning commercial transactions, handle complaints, or enforce penalties for those violating marketplace laws. In some cases, they could be involved in overseeing taxes or fees related to trade and commerce. They could also be responsible for organizing public events, overseeing religious festivals, or facilitating civic projects related to the market or trade.