Truck Company Operations Manual PDF

Fort Worth Fire Department TRUCK COMPANY OPERATIONS MANUAL 0 Current edition of this document updated September 2024 1 Table of Contents 1. Apparatus Positioning 6 1.1. Position for Multi-Use...

Fort Worth Fire Department TRUCK COMPANY OPERATIONS MANUAL 0 Current edition of this document updated September 2024 1 Table of Contents 1. Apparatus Positioning 6 1.1. Position for Multi-Use 7 1.1.1. Placing the Turntable 8 1.2. Rear-Mount Apparatus 8 1.3. Mid-Mount Apparatus 9 1.4. Where to Position 11 1.5. First Truck Positioning Goals 11 1.5.1. Single Family Residential 11 1.5.2. Apartments and Multi-Family Residential 12 1.5.3. Commercial Occupancies 12 1.5.4. Second Truck Positioning Goals 12 2. Riding Assignments 13 2.1. Personnel Configurations 14 2.2. Company Unity 15 2.3. Basic Premises of the Truck Company 15 3. The 10 Functions of the Truck Company 16 3.1. Second Truck Functions 17 4. Forcible Entry 18 4.1. Gap-Set-Force 19 4.1.1. Forcible Entry in Residential Structures 19 4.1.2. Forcible Entry in Commercial Buildings 20 4.1.3. Passive (Respectful) 21 5. Search & Rescue 23 5.1. Profiling 24 5.2. Primary Search 24 5.3. Secondary Search 24 5.4. Search Types 25 5.4.1. Compartmentalized Search 25 5.4.2. Non-Compartmentalized Searches 26 5.4.3. RASP Search Rope 28 5.5. Encountering a Victim 28 5.5.1. Reports of Victims Trapped or Active Rescues 29 5.6. VEIS 29 5.6.1. VES Procedures 30 6. Ventilation 32 2  6.1. Vertical Ventilation 33 6.1.1. Conducting Operations 34 6.1.2. Sounding 35 6.1.3. Procedures 35 6.2. Considerations for Residential Dwelling 36 6.2.1. Photovoltaic Panels 37 6.2.2. Half Stories and Knee Walls 37 6.2.3. The Two Story with Bonus 39 6.3. Commercial Building Considerations 40 6.4. Trench Cut 41 6.5. No-Go’s: Reasons to Forego Vertical Ventilation 42 6.6. Horizontal Ventilation 43 6.7. Positive Pressure Ventilation 44 6.7.1. Positive Pressure Attack 44 7. Reconnaissance 46 7.1. The 360 47 7.2. Roof Report 48 7.3. The Rescue/Survivability Profile 49 7.4. Construction Features and their Clues 49 7.4.1. Apartments 50 7.5. The Case for the Half Story 52 7.6. Basements and Split Levels 52 8. Laddering 54 8.1. One- and Two-Family Dwellings 55 8.2. Apartments 55 8.3. Commercial Buildings 56 8.4. Roof Ladders 56 8.5. Ground Ladder Rules of Thumb 57 9. Elevated Master Streams 59 9.1. To Pump or Not to Pump? That is the Question 60 9.1.1. It’s Not So Simple 60 10. Utility control 62 10.1. Securing Electricity 63 10.1.1. Cutting the Loops 63 10.1.2. Operation 64 3  10.1.3. Power Meter 65 10.1.4. Pulling the Meter 65 10.1.5. Commercial Power 67 10.1.6. Breaker Panels 69 10.1.7. Photovoltaic Panels 69 10.2. Natural Gas 70 10.3. Water 70 11. Rapid Intervention 71 11.1. Passive vs Active RIT Teams 71 11.2. Active RIT 72 11.3. RIT Activations 72 11.4. RIT Pack 73 11.5. Project Mayday Statistics, What They Mean To Us 73 12. Salvage 75 12.1. Salvage Operations 76 13. Overhaul 77 14. Other Tactical Considerations 78 14.1. Taking Command 78 14.2. 3-Person Staffing 79 14.3. Quint Model and Truck Operations 79 15. High-Rise Operations 80 15.1. The First Truck – Suppression Group and the Division Supervisor 81 15.1.1. The Size Up 82 15.1.2. Initial Lobby Recon 82 15.1.3. Fire Floor Division. 83 15.1.4. Hallway Stretch 83 15.1.5. Stairwell Stretch 84 15.2. The Second Truck – Lobby 85 15.2.1. Lobby 85 15.2.2. The Lobby Officer 86 15.2.3. The Fire Control Room Firefighter 86 15.2.4. Building Systems Firefighter 87 15.2.5. Elevator Operator 87 15.3. Conclusion. 88 4 Purpose The purpose of this manual is to serve as a foundation of truck company duties at a structure fire scene. It serves to provide standardization, a consistent method with which to approach a fire scene, and to ensure that all vital support functions are fulfilled in a timely fashion. A secondary function of this manual is that it provides engine companies and command officers with a practical and applicable expectation of truck work; removing the question of what quality of Truck Company will be responding to the scene while simultaneously providing a standard. In years past, truck company operations at a fire scene varied depending on the side of town assigned, the experience of the officer, and the acceptable level of risk perceived by the incident commander. The primary function of the truck company is to support the fire attack - the engine company - and provide the incident commander with peace of mind and a greater awareness of the situation. Therefore, it must be stressed that adequate truck work makes the scene as a whole, a safer place to operate. Search and rescue, ventilation, laddering, and removal of utilities are the majority of truck operations, yet they are merely a few of the tasks that lend to the safety of the fireground. With the advent of “The Quint Concept” and positive pressure ventilation, competent and smart Truck Work has fallen to the wayside in favor of the fast attack and a focus on suppression of the fire. In the future, as the Fort Worth Fire Department moves forward with true truck apparatus, understanding of these support operations will become more and more vital. The greater fuel loads contained within contemporary structures necessitate with utmost importance the need for proper support of the fire attack. Although many texts have outlined and gone into great depth on the subject of Truck Company Operations, where these textbooks fail is they do not show the Fort Worth Fire Department officer and crew how to apply truck work to support the standard procedures and common practices of the department. A multitude of seasoned truck officers, engineers, and senior firefighters have contributed to the content within this manual. Each one has honed their skills and works to perfect their craft each and every shift. The competencies contained within stand to build a culture of trained, motivated, and intelligent truck company members who will frequently be called upon to operate detached from their officer, making critical decisions. Their responsibility at the incident scene should not be taken lightly. These are the accepted operations and best practices to support Fort Worth Fire companies. “Aggression must be balanced with logic and a detailed analysis of risk versus reward.” -Jocko Willink, The Dichotomy of Leadership 5 1. Apparatus Positioning Truck Company positioning is very important to the incident. The longer an incident goes on, apparatus take position, hoselines get deployed, and people go to work, it becomes much harder to reposition or maneuver to a different location. Approaching the scene, we use the mindset of “Position, Don’t Park.” The truck apparatus gets the priority at the scene, and room should be left by earlier arriving engine companies for the truck company to take up position. The most important factor in proper positioning of the aerial device is understanding the capabilities of your apparatus. Knowing what your truck can and cannot do is imperative to the success of the truck company. The length of your aerial, whether mid or rear-mount, interlocks, minimum outrigger extension, and safety overrides will all come into play on the scene if proper positioning is to be taken. Narrow streets and alleys compounded by cars parked in bad spots may force us to utilize subpar placement over none at all. When encountering narrow roadways, personnel should consider short-Jacking to place the aerial into operation. Short-Jacking is a tactic which extends fully the outriggers on the building or working side of the truck and drops the outriggers on the non-working side without extension. It narrows the outrigger footprint and saves space allowing for the apparatus to be used safely on the building side primarily providing for optimum use in a confined area. You should never rotate the aerial device to a side of the truck without the outriggers extended to their minimum extension. Many trucks have built-in safety mechanisms or interlocks which will not allow for such movement; however, we must never rely on safety mechanisms alone. With our current fleet, some apparatus will allow you to work on the extended side while short- jacked, but some models will not allow any movement while short-jacked. Understanding when 6 to use the override switch, particularly on scenes where additional degrees of rotation or elevation will be needed, can add a degree of safety and maneuverability to the truck. 1.1 The Approach As we approach the scene, we are mindful of our turntable position and look for overhead obstructions, vehicles blocking our path, trees in the yard, and the target we are hoping to hit. All of the above considerations have to be reconciled in our minds to obtain the most efficient position. Always position as if the aerial will be used. If we never set it, no harm is done. If we get deep into an incident and need it, it will be much more difficult to reposition. There will be times when vehicles or other apparatus will block or impede our ideal position and cannot be moved. In these cases, we have to do the best we can with the circumstances we are given. Be aggressive with your spot and practice spotting the outriggers from the cab. If a position is tight, or difficult to get into in a setting where the aerial will likely be needed, have the officer or firefighter exit the cab and spot you. 1.1. Position for Multi-Use The primary factor dictating apparatus placement will be the intended task for the truck company to complete. Upper-floor rescue and egress operations bear the greatest burden and require having a scrub area that can adequately reach windows on multiple sides of the building. Scrub area is any area that the ladder can be used to access. Essentially, the greater the scrub area the more windows and roof that may be accessed. It also allows for more flexibility for vertical ventilation reaching the ladder to a point on the roof where travel to the ventilation destination is possible. During defensive master stream operations, the device will need to be only close enough to reach a defined area with a stream. While it can be repositioned if needed, the goal should be to position the ladder where it can be set up, and stay set up, until the end of the incident, regardless of any change in strategy. When positioning, the truck company should also take into consideration collapse zones for potential defensive operations. Collapse zones are generally considered to be 1.5 – 2x the height of the building. When this distance from the building is unattainable, stop short or pull past the building to obtain the best position possible. Collapse zones are critical in Commercial 7 Fire Operations, but nonetheless should be a consideration in devolving or advanced operations in a Wood-Framed Structure. 1.1.1. Placing the Turntable Regardless of the apparatus type, the key to taking up position is to place your turntable. Mid-mount and Rear- mount apparatus will be placed distinctly different and come with their inherent advantages and disadvantages. Mid-mount platforms will utilize their greatest reach and versatility when operating from either side of the truck, while rear-mount aerials and platforms will have the greatest capability while being operated off the sides or over the rear. Nosing into a scene may limit the use of a mid-mount aerial, but backing into the scene may not be feasible or timely. Understanding the capabilities of your apparatus in your district is a crucial component to optimum positioning. Where overhead obstructions impede the use from the street, seek alternative ways to place the turntable in an effective position. Oftentimes backing into position (down driveways, into alleys, or under powerlines), while eating up more time and requiring personnel to back the apparatus, can greatly improve the effectiveness of the aerial device, particularly at fires in a building with two or more floors. All of these factors must be weighed between the time it will take to position, versus the value of that position to the operation. 1.2. Rear-Mount Apparatus Rear Mount apparatuses are incredibly versatile. Driving nose-first into alleys or tight streets and stopping short of the building allows the operator to extend out over the cab and off to the side. Because the ladder sits atop the truck, the area where the interlocks impede movement is minimal compared to a mid-mount. The most efficient use of a rear mount is off to either side and or the back. This also shows its greatest disadvantage. Shooting the ladder out over the front of the truck, eats up your usable length equal to that of the truck’s length, but makes it very easy to use. If the extra length is needed, you must back in. In tight spaces, power lines, buildings, or tight spaces may not allow you to rotate the ladder around to use out the back. Rear mount platform apparatus has all of the advantages listed above, with the disadvantage of added overall length including the platform which hangs out over the front of the cab. 8 1.3. Mid-Mount Apparatus Mid-Mount apparatus in Fort Worth are always platform apparatus and are designated in CAD as Towers. Although, not all towers are going to be mid-mounts. A mid-mount apparatus provides many advantages to fire and rescue operations. During response, mid-mount trucks have a lower center of gravity for easier driving and a clear windshield for better viewing. Once on scene, Mid-Mounts have the advantage, because of design, to spot the turntable more easily under overhead obstructions to still allow for aerial platform use in tough circumstances. During operations, working from a platform is easier, safer and more comfortable, particularly during rescue operations, roof operations, overhaul, and defensive fires. Another distinct advantage is the ability to control the aerial device from the platform which allows for quicker, more efficient and safer positioning of the platform relative to the target. Mid-Mount apparatus also have disadvantages that the Officer, Engineer and crew must be aware of. The biggest disadvantage is that they are less forgiving, with safety overrides frequently finding dead spots or areas unable to reach due to the cab or other mounted accessories being in the way. They have very limited ability over the cab of the truck where they cannot obtain shallow angles. For defensive operations, this is much less of a problem than on offensive operations where you’re trying to reach a specific target. If the mid-mount truck were to nose into a scene and be unable to pull past or square up to a building, the aerial use would be made more difficult. A huge problem with mid-mount maneuverability is what is mounted on the truck. Coffin storage, cord reels, and other additions will directly affect the use of the aerial. Ultimately, familiarization with the apparatus is paramount, however advocating for fewer mounted features when purchasing this apparatus is a must. Positioning a mid-mount truck is distinctly different from any type of rear-mount apparatus. During the approach to an incident, the Engineer and Officer must know the objective if aerial use is being considered. Is there a window or balcony rescue, is the platform being ordered to the roof, or being ordered to be set up at ground level for master stream? Each of these will require specific positioning considerations. This apparatus gains the most advantages during rescue and roof operations when deployed off the side, but unlike a rear mount aerial, directly perpendicular is not the best position for a Mid-Mount. The construction of most platforms places the doors or open working space on the corners and sides, therefore positioning should, if possible, take this into consideration. “Spotting the turntable” with the target will place the platform square with the building and make working from the platform more difficult. Mid- Mounts should be positioned with “Spotting the Bucket” as the primary goal. As the aerial is moved toward the target, the corner of the platform will align with the window, balcony, or roof line and the doors will be able to be opened to provide the most working space. When a Mid-Mount is first on scene or has a clear road ahead, positioning is easy as the Engineer will pull past the target and Spot the Bucket. When other apparatus, vehicles, or other obstructions prevent this, the Engineer must turn the wheels and open the side of the apparatus to the building. This will eliminate the cab from interfering with operations and still allow for proper 9  placement of the platform to the target. If the platform is needed at ground level, Mid-Mounts have approximately 30 degrees of un-impeded space off the side of the apparatus to lower between the cab and rear body. If ground level access or ground level master stream is requested, opening the side of the Mid-Mount perpendicular to the target is a must. As with any apparatus, the crew must know the limitations (how to work around them) and the advantages (how to use them) of the Mid-Mount to operate efficiently. Accessories Mounted around the Turn Table will Accessories mounted towards the back are less likely affect your range of motion to affect range of motion. 10 1.4. Where to Position Approach the scene with the mindset of “Position, Don’t Park”. The ideal positioning for the ladder truck is in front of the building where at least 2 sides and the roof may be accessed. Corner placement is best for commercial buildings, apartments, or buildings for which a collapse is forecast. The goal is to maximize the area that is reachable with your aerial device, known as scrub area. Deterrents to aerial positioning that should be anticipated on scene include: Setbacks Apparatus Already Positioned Outrigger Footprint Overhead lines Trees Carports Scrub Area Collapse Zones If such deterrents exist, the Truck should be spotted in the most effective location for maximum advantage to the incident. It is not uncommon to encounter multiple deterrents at every scene. Anticipate such impediments and practice how best to maneuver around them if possible. 1.5. First Truck Positioning Goals Spot the apparatus in the most tactically valuable spot. This is the place that you believe will do the most good and provide the best advantage given the location of the incident, type of emergency, type of occupancy, and other apparatus locations. First truck will most often be positioned with or near the first arriving engine on the side of the structure where initial entry will be made. It is a priority to assist the first line get into place and no better place to help that than right with the first engine. However, advantageous positioning should still be the priority, in the vicinity of the first engine. If we discover shortfalls in our positioning without the time to redeploy, provide the needed information to the second truck so they can spot where needed. Specific positioning will be dependent on the building but should take into consideration the information in the following sections. 1.5.1. Single Family Residential Single Family Residential occupancies will call for the first-due Truck to spot toward the front of the building to maximize aerial access to the roof, expedited access to ground ladders, tools, and equipment. Aerial use on single story residences is atypical, however it should not be counted out as an option for roof access or defensive operations. On multistory homes, aerial 11 should be heavily considered. Large homes of several thousands of square feet frequently devolve into defensive operations. These large homes also have the added barriers of setbacks and long driveways. 1.5.2. Apartments and Multi-Family Residential Apartments and Multi-Family Residential should be spotted with the goal of targeting as many windows and landings as possible and maximizing scrub area for offensive/defensive master stream operations. Keep in mind this position may not be the side where fire attack is initiated. 1.5.3. Commercial Occupancies Commercial Occupancies will be spotted for roof and/or upper floor access while being cognizant of collapse zones. The Truck should initially be positioned near where fire attack is initiated to assist with access while also being cognizant of collapse zones. For Large Commercial and/or Multi-Floor occupancies where the collapse zone extends beyond effective reach of the aerial, or the increased scrub area coverage over two sides of the building is considered necessary, the truck should set up on the corner of the building. 1.5.4. Second Truck Positioning Goals The overriding goal for the second truck is to position opposite the first truck and take up any truck functions not being tended to by first truck. Second-Arriving Truck for Commercial and Apartment fires should spot in the position of greatest tactical advantage opposite the first arriving truck and provide a CAN report to command. For strip malls and other commercial occupancies, it may be advantageous for second truck to spot the on the back side (typically Charlie) of the structure if accessible. Depending on alleys, access, overhead wires, and other obstacles, the best position possible should be taken. The Charlie Side will often provide access to additional entry/egress points that the companies on the front of the building can't quickly/easily access, utilities are typically located there, and (provided overhead power lines aren't a precluding factor) roof access with the aerial device is typically better. Although not definite, the Charlie Side often lacks the parapets found on the Alpha Side. Proactively placing the second truck is imperative for the evolving incident as a good position provides forethought to the IC should the fire transition to a defensive operation. It gives options and allows us to position our trucks where they should be before there are other apparatus, hoselines, or personnel impeding our desired spot. We place our apparatus in advantageous positions in preparation for access, egress, and elevated master stream use. Forecast how the incident will progress and position to stay ahead of it. Cover as much scrub area as possible but staging down the street is an inappropriate placement for the second truck. If we wait until directed, we will likely be unable to get that ideal position with other companies on scene and supply lines down. Use the same principles as the first truck and position as best you can to stay ahead of the incident. It may be best to enter the scene from the opposite direction or use an alternative entrance than earlier arriving companies, even if doing so takes more time. 12 2. Riding Assignments Truck Company Example Riding Assignments Engineer Officer Donn PPE Thermal Imager Extra tools Irons & Pick Head Axe Ventilation / VEIS Chain Saw Soften Building as needed 360 and Primary Search Left Firefighter Right Firefighter Hot Stick & Hooks Ground Ladder to building Ventilation / VEIS Forcible Entry Utilities Primary Search The example above is the standard riding assignments for Truck 24 on the C-Shift. These assignments were developed based on the most common needs during structure fires within that district which is primarily single and multifamily dwellings. Needs and duties will be established around your response area and as such your riding assignments may look different. The spirit of these assignments are based on the ability to gather all necessary tools and equipment that will be needed for offensive truck functions during a working incident in a single trip from the apparatus to the scene. Making multiple trips to and from the apparatus eats up precious time that could be spent gathering information, searching for victims, or performing ventilation before our window expires. Having all equipment off the truck right out of the gate puts us ahead of the incident; prepared for the most likely possibilities. Winging it with the attitude of “we will figure it out when we get there” is unacceptable when assigned to a Truck Company. We must have a strategy and plan to be aggressive, forward-thinking, and accomplish our tasks with the highest level of efficiency and proficiency. On scene is not the time or place to wonder if you’re going topside or to try forcing a commercial door with a pry tool and no striking tool, much the same as a firefight is not time for a Marine to figure out how to use his rifle. The tool assignments will vary based on the station and the discretion of the officer but should not be thought of as a rigid delineation of the job of that seat and they. Assignments are more of a front loading of the incident with initial functions and a compliment of tools to complete them. The carrying out of each specific function is dynamic and tailored to the needs of each incident. Conditions drive tactics and audibles are acceptable. The members should feel empowered to make micro decisions that will further the overall intent of the Truck Company: Support the Engine Company. 13 The many variables that a working fire scene can throw at us can be boiled down into very basic elements that we can prepare for ahead of time. Victims inside the structure and the engine companies are counting on the truck to make their job as easy as possible. By its very nature, an easier job makes for a safer job. If the incident takes a turn for the worse, it can often be traced back in some fashion to the operations, or lack thereof, of the truck company. 2.1. Personnel Configurations The above tool assignments are based on the split team concept of truck operations on the Fort Worth Fire Department: The Inside Team consisting of: 1. Truck Officer 2. Right Side Firefighter The Outside Team consisting of: 1. Apparatus Engineer 2. Left Side Firefighter The nature of the breakdown in assignments are with the inside team conducting initial forcible entry and primary search, then assisting with suppression. The outside team is responsible for VEIS, primary ventilation decisions, forcible entry for egress, and utility control. This should serve as a basic breakdown of the common functions for most residential and apartment fire scenes. Between the split teams, the officer will most often serve with the inside team leaving the outside team to be either an Engineer and Firefighter or two Firefighters. For this reason, the least experienced member should be placed in the right side firefighter position so that he/she may operate in direct supervision with the Truck Officer. By virtue of the importance of the outside team’s functions, the need to make critical decisions that affect interior operations, and the inherent risks associated with utility control and ventilation, the left side team should consist of the more tenured members or the company. Because they will likely be operating satellite from the Truck Officer, they should be members comfortable with and confident in making decisions on their assigned tasks without direct supervision. Do not take lightly who your outside team is and ensure they are empowered to make the decisions necessary to properly undertake that role. The officer cannot and will not be present for all decisions made and as such, must empower their crew with training and knowledge needed to make the proper decision in their absence. 14 2.2. Company Unity Certain operations will require the company to abandon the split team concept and unite to complete a task or assignment. Commercial ventilation, master stream operations, rapid intervention, and wide-area searches are but a few of the operations that call for the entire company to take part. Later arriving truck companies should complete functions not undertaken by the first arriving truck and will likely work as a four person crew to complete these tasks. Keep in mind that if the aerial device is in operation, the truck engineer will need to stay in the vicinity of the aerial to assist with its operation and be prepared should a sudden need arise to support ventilation, master stream placement, or other pressing need. Ultimately, the decision to split the truck company is at the discretion of the Truck Officer unless specifically dictated by command or the division or group supervisor. 2.3. Basic Premises of the Truck Company When boiled down to its core, the mission of the fire department at a structure fire is to make the problem go away, and/or take anyone affected by the problem out of harm’s way. The Engine Company’s function is focused primarily on making the problem go away, while the job of the Truck Company is to remove anyone from the area of the problem and support the Engine in their job. All fireground functions should be undertaken with the following deductive assumptions: ALL buildings are occupied until proven otherwise which means searching any searchable spaces The SAFEST means to search these spaces is in conjunction with an offensive fire attack Offensive fire attacks and search tactics should be supported by aggressive, coordinated ventilation Upon determination of an unoccupied building, the continuation of offensive attack should be based on experienced judgment and risk assessment Regardless of whether you are assigned to a truck company, or assigned truck work as an Engine Company, the work is the same and requires the same approach, based on the above reasoning. Fort Worth Fire Truck Company Officers should base their actions on the basic hierarchy of truck company functions. 15 3. The 10 Functions of the Truck Company Hierarchy of the 10 Truck Company Functions 1. Coordinated Forcible Entry/Exits in support of fire attack 2. Search and Rescue/Aerial Rescue 3. Coordinated Ventilation (considering flow paths) 4. Recon (Size-Up, Roof, and Charlies-Side Reports) 5. Proactive Placement of Ground Ladders for Access/Egress 6. Elevated Master Streams 7. Utility Control 8. Salvage 9. Overhaul 10. Rapid Intervention The benchmark for the truck company should be a required completion or consideration of the first seven tasks in the initial 5-10 minutes of arrival at the incident. They are by no means undertaken one-by-one; likened to a symphony where all members are performing their specific tasks, they must occur at the right time, in concert. These first seven tasks are much like 16 a check list where the order of completion is subject to change as the incident dictates: Conditions Drive Tactics. The latter three tasks will be less time sensitive so they must be completed after the control of the incident or will be assigned to another company. RIT, although important to an incident, is superseded by the need to assist fire attack with proper support activities. Within our department, it is unlikely, yet not impossible, that a truck company will be assigned RIT. This is due to most residential fires only having a single truck company, and commercial and apartment fires requiring greater manpower for typical truck functions. 3.1. Second Truck Functions The second in truck typically fills in the gaps of whatever truck functions the first was unable to see to. This could include any of the 10 Functions and, as with the first in truck, the first 7 are of primary importance and should be given attention first. For Commercial and Apartment fires proactive positioning of the second truck becomes even more important. The Rule of Thumb should be to take a side of the building opposite of the first truck, essentially dispersing equipment effectively for the scene. Front loading the incident with correct placement of the aerial, as stated before, sets up the scene correctly from the start. Even adhering to the letter of the SOP and staging until the IC gives instruction can be accomplished from the opposite side of the building. In larger buildings this allows you to give the IC some recon of a side he can’t see and make recommendations of actions that are needed. Should the incident move to a defensive operation the IC will likely establish divisions and request aerial master streams set up in opposite divisions and with water supplies from separate hydrants. Taking the opposite side of the building from the onset averts any repositioning needed in this event. It is situation dependent, and conditions will drive our tactics. As second truck it is your responsibility to read that situation and make a decision based not only on what the first truck is already doing, but what they ARE NOT yet doing. Think what needs to be done to fill in the gaps and get to work. 17 4. Forcible Entry In practical application, Forcible Entry must be an immediate consideration upon arrival on scene. Forcible Entry should not be thought of as simply getting the engine into the building, but also providing for a means to exit the building should an evacuation be needed. A chief consideration of Forcible Entry should be door control post-entry which ensures the flow path remains contained and lessens the chances of rapid fire development. Flow path control while forcing the front door is important, however the importance is increased exponentially when forcing the back door which is typically undertaken after the attack has begun and the engine company has entered the building. Truck company officers will coordinate with their crews the compliment of tools to be utilized at a structure fire. Commercial and Residential doors, while different in many respects can typically be defeated with a basic set up of tools. The Irons are a must at every structure fire simply for their versatility. No doubt the most flexible tools on the fireground, each Truck company will optimally be set up with at least two full sets of irons. The Wynn Pole or New York Hook can be implemented to gain further mechanical leverage as well as marrying irons together fork to fork. As far as Forcible Entry is concerned, with the first due Truck operating as a split team, the inside team’s role in forcible entry is gaining access while the outside team’s role is creating egress points. Ideally a set of Irons, or at least a Halligan bar should be assigned to the outside and inside teams. If assigned RIT, Forcible Entry should be a foremost consideration. An active RIT team creates ingress and egress points to make the building safer and easier for them to respond and operate in. 18 4.1. Gap-Set-Force Gap-Set-Force is the fundamental steps to traditional forcible entry. Soften the door with strikes, crush with the Adz, and pry toward the door. If the door has not released, place the forks into the gap and drive until the ads can be set behind the door frame. Pry again and the door will give. If the door fails to open, start again and go back through the steps. Refrain from frustratingly using your foot to mule kick. This is unprofessional and a failure in your training. If we stick to the triad and true fundamentals, we will win the day looking like the professionals we are. 4.1.1. Forcible Entry in Residential Structures Typical of residential structures are inward swinging doors. Inward swinging doors can be taken more readily by a single person with a Halligan bar. Leverage is easier to gain, the doors are typically wooden or hollow metal, and aged making them weaker through the years. Passive entry (see below) for inward-swinging doors, however, is much more difficult than outward swinging. Counterintuitively, passive entry is going to be needed more often for inward swinging doors on lift helps, welfare checks, and EMS calls. Through the knob and use of the K- Tool are also options that incur less damage than the irons. Let’s look into the fundamentals for inward swinging forcible entry. First, we shock the door and capture the progress with our foot or a wedge. Attack with the Adz of the Halligan in the gap of the door jamb at a 90-degree angle from the door (as pictured). Crush to get as much gap as possible capturing your progress as you get it. If the door has yet to 19 open, and the adz cannot be slipped behind the frame, transition to forks and drive with a striking tool if necessary. Apply force towards the door until the door gives or more of a gap is gained to reset the tool. 4.1.2. Forcible Entry in Commercial Buildings Commercial Building forcible entry on a fire scene can be expected to be outward swinging doors. Front doors will usually be some type of metal frame inset with tempered glass while rear doors will be metal doors without windows and several types of fortifications. Primary concerns for forcible entry in the front of commercial buildings is maintaining integrity of the glass doors, so be mindful that once the glass is broken, door control, and with it flow path control, is lost. If the glass is lost it should be communicated to interior crews so they can expect a change in conditions. Passive entry tactics which include removal of the keyway via screwdriver or K-Tool should be the first line tactic. If these are unsuccessful the irons should be used with minimal crushing a prying if possible, again attempting to maintain glass integrity. Rear commercial doors are typically outward swinging solid or hollow metal doors. These doors can be defeated easily with the irons barring any extreme fortifying devices on the inside. A single firefighter using the flat head axe as a wedge and the halligan bar can in most cases gap and set the tool to obtain enough leverage to force the door. If more leverage is needed, the utilization of a hook, synced halligans, or married forks halligans can add additional leverage to defeat the door. The goal should be to force a rear door in 30-45 seconds and move to the next. If a door is taking multiple minutes to force, you should begin questioning other entry methods and if the time is worth the advantage gained by its opening. 20  While Commercial Occupancies will likely offer more opportunities for forcible entry, you will also have more targets that are remote from the apparatus. Consider what type of doors you will likely be forcing and take the necessary tools right off the truck. The truck company assigned to the rear should at a minimum operate with a set of irons and a hook for leverage. However, when operating in the front, a K-Tool and Irons would be more appropriate. Whatever the case, remember that time is of the essence. Stick to the fundamentals, soften the door and maintain door control. It’s also smart to carry in you bunker pocket, tools that can serve multiple purposes for use with the K-Tool or to attack the latch if enough of a gap is gained. Flat Head Screwdriver, needle nose pliers or vise grips, wedges and shove knives are lightweight and versatile in their use for both passive entry and more invasive entry. Knowing and going through a progression from least invasive to most invasive methods can be useful in both emergent and non-emergent situations. 4.1.3. Passive (Respectful) Entry Tactics Passive entry tactics are utilized when little or no damage needs to be done or entry is being made at a less emergent time. It’s approached similarly to a lock-out of a vehicle with many of the same thought processes. Passive entry can be pulling a panic bar using a lock out kit through the gap, or disengaging a latch from the jamb using a shove or putty knife. For the most part these will be commercial doors and can easily be practiced during commercial inspections and automatic alarm responses. Essentially when you don’t want to break the door due to flow path concerns, cost, lack of urgency to the situation, or simply for good PR, passive entry is a good bet. Passive entry also includes removal of lock cylinders and knobs to make entry into both commercial and residential structures while leaving the door and frame structurally intact. Passive entry should be in the forefront of our minds during non-emergency incidents and investigations where additional time can be taken without detriment to the incident. 21 Commercial automatic alarms and non-emergency lift helps are prime examples of times to practice and implement passive entry techniques. Size up the door, decide on a technique and challenge yourself to make entry in a way that damages the door the least. Be creative and practice! The more ways we can find that work, especially utilizing tools we commonly carry on our persons, makes us look professional, expands our forcible entry horizons, and goes a long way toward forging good relationships with the citizens. Carry a small pouch of tools in your pockets that can assist with passive entry. Packing things in pockets can get heavy so try to carry tools that serve more than 1 purpose unless you use that tool frequently. If the array of tools you prefer is too broad and heavy to carry in your pockets, building a passive entry bag is recommended. This kit can be easily retrieved from the apparatus and put to use. Example of a Pocket Passive Entry Kit 22 5. Search & Rescue Search and Rescue is the primary and paramount function of the Truck Company. Remember, the building is not clear until we say it is clear. This fact is of crucial importance and the entire reason for offensive tactics. Reports that “everyone is out” of the structure should be factored into the risk assessment but should be substantiated by on-scene crews searching the building themselves. Reports of “everyone is out” should never replace the performance of a primary search. While the Engine is focused on the firefight, it is the responsibility of the Truck to perform a coordinated search of the structure. The initial actions of the truck company should focus on search and rescue. Conditions may sometimes dictate that ventilation takes precedence over immediate search and rescue such as when a size up of the building indicates such turbulent conditions that immediate ventilation is needed for the building to be both searched and a push to the fire made. Conditions will dictate the tactics. 23 5.1. Profiling Rescue and Search should begin with a building profile, much of which is determined or seen during the reconnaissance task. Profiling the building tells you essentially where the likely spaces are in which a victim could likely be located as well as whether those spaces are possibly searchable. A building profile includes factors of impediments into and out of the structure, conditions within livable spaces, and gathering of any intelligence that narrows down the area to start searching. The Truck Company should be looking for spaces within the structure that could possibly be searchable. As a general rule, any spaces without heavy fire conditions showing should be considered searchable. In limited situations, there will be searchable space in rooms with fire conditions. In this situation, any area that your PPE allows to be searched without failure should be done. The decision of where and how the search begins should rest with the search team leader; conditions should dictate tactics. Very basically, if a single room of a residence is not involved in fire, that room requires clearance for possible victims. It is not our job to write off victims, but to take calculated risks in order to determine if anyone can be saved from an atmosphere. 5.2. Primary Search A primary search is a quick and methodical initial search of a structure under smoke, fire, or other conditions which is completed once all spaces within a structure have been cleared of victims by fire department personnel. While it should be quick, the primary focus should be on thoroughness. The haste of the primary search is not to check the box to just say it is completed, the haste is to quickly find and remove any victims. If there is any doubt that all locations have been found and cleared, there is no need to rush the time stamp of the primary; take your time and be thorough. Once all areas have been cleared, command should be notified of a primary all clear. 5.3. Secondary Search A secondary search is a search of all spaces within a structure that is slow, methodical, and thorough, searching for any possible victims not found during the primary search. The secondary search will commence after a primary search has been completed, the fire has been brought under control, and the atmosphere is such that there is a clear and unobstructed view of all spaces. Secondary searches are slow, smooth searches that are done under no pressure for completion. They should be thought of as a search that takes place AFTER a Fire Under Control has been given and the structure has been ventilated. The secondary search team should, in a perfect world, be a crew other than that which completed the primary search. The reasoning is that we psychologically will convince ourselves that we very thoroughly searched a room on the primary. If we skipped any portion of the room on the primary, we inevitably will on the secondary. Let a fresh set of eyes do the job because a secondary search is the ultimate 24 determination of whether the building is clear. Once completed, radio the all-clear to the Command for a time stamp. Understand that this time stamp is of legal significance to the Incident Commander. In a court of law, it can be used as proof that a search was done and how serious it was regarded based on whether it was or was not done, and if it was a reasonable amount of time between a primary all-clear or under control and a secondary all-clear. 5.4. Search Types Following a size-up of the structure and rescue profiling, the search team leader should determine which search method will be used. The type of search performed will depend on the type of structure involved. Accepted search methods in the Fort Worth Fire Department include the following: Oriented Search – a procedure where one member maintains orientation while delegating searching of specific compartments to other members. Split Search – a procedure where the search team splits and covers separate areas of the building simultaneously. Ideal for use in smaller structures where orientation is easier to maintain. Right or Left Standard Search – Basic search procedure which consists of the search leader starting in the left or right direction of the building with team members following behind. Rope-Assisted Search Procedure (RASP) – Use ofa specifically designed search rope in a wide area environment to search a large building where the likelihood or disorientation is high. Vent-Enter-Isolate-Search (VEIS) or Window Search – Vent Enter Isolate Search is a targeted search of a specific room or area where the likelihood of a victim being found is high. 5.4.1. Compartmentalized Search A compartmentalized building is one that has a footprint broken into several rooms of various sizes. The advantages of this type of building include the ability to maintain orientation, ability to seek refuge in rooms from fire growth, greater offerings of exit points. Compartmentalized structures are our 1 and 2-family residential and apartment buildings. Some buildings can also be a mixture of compartmentalized inside large open area, or non-compartmentalized. Under ideal conditions, an oriented search or a split search will be undertaken dependent on the skill level of the search team. In homes and apartments, if a primary search is not being undertaken upon the Truck Company’s arrival on scene, the task will be assumed by the Truck crew. A search will consist of at least a 2 person team entering the residence or the fire apartment through an entry point deemed acceptable by the search team and systematically clearing all rooms for victims until a primary search is complete. This task is the entire reason we occupy the inside of the structure during a fire. Depending on time of day and conditions, 25 the bedrooms are where the majority of primary searches need to focus. Bedrooms are where an overwhelming majority of victims are found in comparison to total number of fires. When entering the residence, enter while crawling upright, below the smoke layer as seen in the picture. This allows you to be below the smoke and heat, still mobile, and gives you the widest field of vision possible. Enter and proceed as near the fire as possible, then systematically around and through all rooms within the structure. Communicate as a team, talking frequently to ensure accountability. Speak and tell the other team member what you see, what you feel, and any specific features you find. This assists with orienting yourselves to the layout of the building. When The Upright Crawl Position encountering rooms off a hallway, it is recommended that one member remain at the door, while the other searches the room to ensure all areas of that room are covered and none missed. It also helps orient the searching member to where the primary exit is and allows for control of the flow path if conditions change. Once all rooms are cleared, a “Primary All Clear” will be voiced via radio to command. In smaller residential buildings such as 1 and 2-bedroom apartments or small duplexes, use of the TIC may be limited. It will likely be more efficient to search these small rooms by feel. The larger the room size, the more functional the use of the camera. As a general rule, do not forget to balance your time off the camera with your time on the camera. Overall, the use of the TIC will depend on the comfort level of the firefighter using it. In compartmentalized structures, the TIC should primarily be used to orient the search team to the layout of the structure and not as the sole means to clear rooms. With awareness of the orientation of furniture and rooms, we can sweep with our hands to obtain the primary all-clear. 5.4.2. Non-Compartmentalized Searches Non-compartmentalized searches is searching in commercial structures that have large open areas such as restaurants, strip centers, big box stores, warehouses, and similar open structures. When searching in structures such as these, a heavy reliance on the TIC will make the search safer and faster. Use the open floor plan to your advantage. These buildings should not be treated like a residential, compartmentalized structure, but should be undertaken with 26 much more caution and understanding of generalizations which can play to your advantage. Occupancies with smaller square footage (500-3000 sq ft) can typically be searched with the same strategies as a residence as this is a manageable size structure for a search team of 2-4. In larger occupancies (4000-10,000 sq ft) we must understand that it will take some time for smoke to build up to a point where occupants will be unable to self-evacuate. Even though the data from the Firefighter Rescue Survey consistently shows that commercial buildings account for approximately 1% of all documented rescues2, these larger buildings must still be assumed to be occupied and therefore must be searched. Understand that a single search crew of 2-4 people will take 2-3 times as long to cover that amount of ground as in a residential structure. The lack of compartmentalization creates a further challenge to the search with the openness of flow paths lending to rapid fire development and the lack of ability to seek refuge from the fire should an event occur. Occupancies with greater than 10,000 square feet of floor space to cover are exponentially more time-consuming than the latter. Large open spans are achieved in more modern construction with bar joist trusses which when heated can lead to catastrophic failure should they expand to a point where they’re separated from the walls. The recommendation and practice is to search first for fire and then for victims. If searching a building with greater than 4,000 square feet of floor space, the Truck Company should initially link up with the attack team to act as a suppression group (as in a hi-rise) and achieve their search utilizing the TIC and maintaining contact with the attack team. What this buys you is time. You’re able to search around the attack team (who theoretically will be closest to the fire) and get a layout of the structure while also assisting them with finding the fire. Once you know they are attacking the fire, they’ve bought you a chunk of time to search the structure with the peace of mind that the firefight is taking place. Situational awareness is key, and of even greater import as the size of the building increases. We should also remember that if you are unable to see your feet in large occupancies this should be a red flag that you are in a bad situation and need to take in what’s around you. Light smoke in a big building is heavy smoke. Heavy smoke in a big building is a bad day. We can assume that these larger buildings will afford us some visibility nearest the floor which will aid in our search, but the TIC will still be a huge assistance in covering large areas efficiently. The search team in a non-compartmentalized structure should have 3 members (I recommend leaving the Engineer with the apparatus to ladder the building, give a roof report, prepare master streams, and generally assist with any outside functions). With these 3, the search team leader can maintain contact with the line, orient his searchers with views from the TIC, and maintain their orientation with voice contact by watching them through the TIC. If multiple TICs can be quickly obtained, they will shave much time off conducting the search. Secondarily, the Search Leader can maintain awareness of conditions and the progress of the firefight. We must also keep in mind that commercial occupancies are rarely occupied by customers after hours which may narrow our initial search decision to office spaces, kitchens, etc. where employees may have been working after hours. If more crews are needed to complete the search, it may 27 be necessary to transition away from Suppression Group, if established, and create a Search Group to coordinate efforts. 5.4.3. RASP Search Rope The RASP rope is 150 feet of 3/8” rope which is woven with Kevlar and reflective thread. Every 25 feet, there is a small cone attached to the rope signifying the distance from tie off. The rope is contained in a reflective bag with a shoulder strap. The shoulder strap includes a seat belt releasing device which allows for easy disconnecting from the firefighter should the need to evacuate be given. The RASP bag also has attached, three tag lines that are 25 feet each and used to maintain connection to the main search rope and search an area designated away from the path of travel. RASP searches are ideally used in a non- compartmentalized, wide area, or open setting such as warehouses, cafeterias, restaurants, and church sanctuaries. It can also be used in a compartmentalized area, albeit less effective. When used in a smaller or compartmentalized building the rope can get in the way or the hose team moving through the structure. RASP Rope and Tag Lines 5.5. Encountering a Victim Any company undertaking search as a task on the fireground should expect to encounter a victim, priming the brain for what the next move is as they travel through the building. Remember, the building isn’t clear until we say it is clear. When a victim is encountered, the firefighter should immediately alert the search team leader (typically the officer) who should voice over the radio “Victim, Victim, Victim”, followed by a CAN report to command to include intended actions for removal. This serves as a prompt for Command’s actions such as notifying FAO for a Medstar unit, launching Careflite, assigning a company for EMS, need for additional manpower to the scene, or need for another crew to continue searching the remainder of the building. Communicating that you have located a victim is vital to the incident and giving a situation update helps command help you. The removal itself is a situational and subjective endeavor. For example, if the victim is encountered during VES operations, the search team may elect to remove via the window or 28 through the house if the fire is knocked down. Each situation is different and the decision of how and where to extract the victim must be made depending on where they are encountered. Always search the immediate area around a located victim to ensure they were alone and not with someone such as a loved one or a small child. Upon successful removal of the victim, a report should always be made to command. 5.5.1. Reports of Victims Trapped or Active Rescues Reports of victims trapped no doubt will increase the tension of the situation and create a sense of focus and want to perform from all members responding to a structure fire. Crews will want to take initiative, think through the problem, draw conclusions that may not be accurate, or helpful, for the situation, and therefore will become task focused and neglect other duties which may need attention. In a residential setting, a report of victims trapped requires no less the attention to ventilation, forcible entry, recon of the building and search than any other fire. The only thing this report does is confirm the assumption with which we base our interior firefighting efforts. As a first in Truck Company, taking a third person to search may seem the prudent action, however on the outside the ventilation team is no longer able to go aloft with only a single person. Furthermore, the third firefighter doubles the oversight of the officer and as such reduces the officer’s effectiveness as a member of the search team and will slow down the search effort. Perhaps this “third rescuer” is better served as the O/V team who will meet the search team at the desired victim removal point or can be called inside to assist once the victim is encountered and definitive location determined. Or perhaps a split search primary supplemented with VEIS would be more efficient. There is no hard a fast rule when an active rescue situation is encountered. The officer should take in the as much as possible and make the best decision for the situation while also understanding that supporting the search may be best served by not putting everyone onto the search team. Active rescues, better known as people hanging out of windows on arrival, can still call initially for just 2 people. Flexing a 3rd person is a decision best made in reaction to the situation at hand, with the only hard and fast rule being this: if you pull the third guy over to assist, have a definite job for him to do. Pulling a third person over is much more prudent when there is victim at a known location rather than just taking an extra person to help the search. 5.6. VEIS Vent Enter Isolate Search is very basically, breaking a window and searching a specific room from that window. The task itself is straightforward. The challenge to Truck Company crews is how to practically apply it to the fireground. VEIS is the task that coincides with our Close the Door initiative. If we are advocating for people to sleep with their doors closed, then VEIS is where we will be going in to get them behind those closed doors. VEIS should be in the forefront of your mind when: 29  The means of standard ingress/egress is blocked (by fire or other impediment) The room(s) are the only searchable space in a well-involved structure Known intel that a victim is located in a specific room In the two former cases think of VEIS as simply starting your search from a specific room via the window as opposed to entering through the front or back door. The last example is a distinct justification to forego a standard search plan and proceed directly to the referenced window. Once the room entered is cleared thoroughly, a choice must be made, based on fire conditions, to either continue searching the remainder of the building from that room or exiting and continue to other searchable spaces via VES. In more recent texts VES has become VEIS with the “I” simply highlighting the isolation of the room being searched (i.e. closing the door) to control the flow path. With the door closed and flow path contained, the firefighter has bought a significant amount of time in order to search the room thoroughly or effect a rescue. With fire behavior of contemporary fuels, time is a significant factor. VES is primarily a consideration of the Outside Team unless definite intel or educated deduction is given to the Truck Company. If the Outside Team finds likely candidates, they may elect to conduct VES to supplement the primary search by the Inside Team but must advise command. VES can also be used with a split search plan to target bedrooms while simultaneously targeting the other areas of the structure. 5.6.1. VES Procedures Venter Enter Search sounds simple enough. You break the window, enter the room, isolate the flow path, search the room, and get out. Do not let the ease of the name fool you. This task takes practice and understanding of what you’re seeing, how it affects what you’re going to do, and a judge of the time needed to complete the search. VEIS is conducted as follows: When arriving at the window desired to enter, break the glass beginning at the top and working down. Remove all glass and framing of the window as quickly as possible. The opening needs to be as clear as can be to minimize injury to you and the potential victims during removal, as well as provide the largest opening for entry and exit. Once the window is cleared, sound the floor at the base of the window ensuring stability and that no victims are present, then scan the room with the TIC and note anything of significance: beds, closets, the door to the room, obvious victims. Use these landmarks for orientation as you enter the room. Upon entering the room proceed immediately to the door of the room. Let nothing stop you on your route to the door, particularly if fire conditions are changing rapidly, there is high heat, or heavy smoke. Even if a victim is encountered, proceed to the door to buy 30  you and that victim time to be removed. Once at the door, sweep what floor area you can in the hallway outside the room, prior to closing it. Once the door is closed, search the room quickly and thoroughly using the landmarks found by the TIC. It is good practice to have a second rescuer with the TIC watch you from the window to assist in your search. They can simultaneously act as a guide and watch for condition changes. Once the room is searched and cleared either exit the window or continue the search as you would a standard search pattern. This aspect will depend heavily on fire conditions. 31 6. Ventilation Ventilation is the removal of smoke and heat from a structure. Ventilation should be a coordinated endeavor that seeks to make the environment safer and more tenable for trapped victims and crews operating within. Ventilation can also be thought of as an extension of our salvage effort. Removal of smoke and heat lessens the likelihood of fire extension, in turn salvaging uninvolved portions of a building. There are three types of ventilation used on the Fort Worth Fire Department: Vertical, Horizontal, and Positive Pressure. The easiest way to think of them are in terms of when they will be used. Horizontal and vertical will be used in conjunction with and to support the attack. Positive Pressure is most often utilized after knocking down the fire, but under the right circumstances can be used to support the attack. Regardless of the tactics used, the overriding message on ventilation is that each and every fire requires coordination when conducting it. Coordinated Ventilation is ventilation that takes place with a hoseline in operation. The attack team should expect condition changes and be listening for saws running, glass breaking, doors being forced, and benchmarks over the radio. The nature of modern fuels versus legacy fuels makes ventilation incredibly important to undertake, yet also underscores the need for coordination when performing such a task. The concept of ladder fuels revolves around the gasses that combustion produces. It refers to the way ignition temperatures of common gases accelerate the flammability of other gases that are present. As an example, acrolein self-ignites at 450°F, benzene self- ignites at 928°F, hydrogen cyanide self-ignites Courtesy John Mittendorf, Truck Company Operations, 2nd ed. 32 at 1,000°F, and carbon monoxide self-ignites at 1,128°F. The ignition of acrolein will be followed by a rise in temperature that will ignite the benzene which will then lead to the subsequent ignition of hydrogen cyanide followed by carbon monoxide, the most commonly produced byproduct of combustion3. Where ventilation becomes important is that the addition of oxygen into a superheated atmosphere places the ladder fuels into their explosive ranges. This is how uncoordinated ventilation leads to rapid fire development such as rollover and flashover. Ventilation must be coordinated with the application of water to prevent an event which would endanger victims and firefighters. Vent-limited fires lack oxygen yet have abundant fuel and heat. Ventilation lessens the concentrations of fuel and heat yet at the same time replaces the vacated space with oxygen provided a balanced mixture that leads to rapid fire development. Whether on the roof, opening doors, taking the windows, or starting the fans, ventilation must be communicated to the suppression team. They are closest to conditions and have the best vantage point. Always listen to the guy on the ground. Where smoke is showing, fire will follow. If we do not redirect the smoke or put out the fire, fire will soon be where the smoke is showing. Ventilation can also be thought of as channeling the smoke where we want it to go in order to achieve improved visibility and survivability, reduction of heat, or offensive salvage. A properly placed vent hole, or window removed in the correct area can reduce fire spread to uninvolved portions of a building thus saving them from any damage. This is particularly important in attic fires. 6.1. Vertical Ventilation Vertical ventilation is removal of heat and smoke by means of opening the roof and allowing them to eject straight up and out. When undertaking vertical ventilation, the Truck Company should approach the scene with the intent to vent vertically unless a “no-go” is identified. When we take the roof and begin vertical ventilation, we are trying to create a controlled fire- through-the-roof situation. In doing so, we remove the ability of the fire to build up high heat and low visibility where crews are operating. The roof can be opened via natural openings such as skylights or existing vent pipes, but most commonly by a crew on the roof with saws and hand tools. 33 Vertical ventilation creates a chimney in the building and serves as a more efficient means to ventilate heat and smoke than horizontal ventilation as the heat and steam will naturally rise and want to exit out the top of the building. The vertical ventilation hole must be cut over the fire location or as close to the seat of the fire as can safely be reached. While some find vertical ventilation controversial, when understood and performed correctly, vertical ventilation provides an effective and efficient means to ventilate a structure. Dually, it serves to limit lateral extension within a building whether the fire is inside a room or in the attic or void spaces. It must be understood that vertical ventilation does serve the possibility of aiding fire infiltration into the void space. This is an acceptable risk as we know from our experience that significant fire involvement will naturally find a way into the void on its own. With topside ventilation, we understand that exposure and allow the attack team a more tenable atmosphere to complete extinguishment. If a structure is safe enough to have suppression crews operating inside, then it is safe enough to consider operating topside. Nonetheless, caution must be used the same as it would be when operating on the interior. Taking the roof provides a smoke lift and heat ejection that can aid in completing a timely search, locating and subsequently extinguishing the fire, and providing a controlled avenue for the inevitable steam conversion to exit. All of these factors increase safety and are worth the perceived risk of taking the roof. If the IC is asking for a withdrawal from the roof, they should be prepared to remove all companies from the interior compartment below the area in question as collapse potential must be considered. 6.1.1. Conducting Operations To begin, approach the building looking for what is not burning, work your way to what is burning (or as near to it as possible) and make your cut. The prime determination in assessing ventilation is not solely whether the fire is vented, but whether the fire is vented adequately. If the fire or smoke is venting with velocity, it can be assumed that the ventilation is inadequate and therefore filling the building with the back pressure it is unable to release from a limited space. Much like water to a smooth bore nozzle, if the orifice is not large enough for the water to exit, the pressure will build up and fill the compartment behind the exit subsequently building up the pressure. The only problem for the Truck Company is that we do not know how fast the pump (the fire) is running so all we can do is guess the size of the opening. ACCORDING TO IFSTA a textbook size vent hole is 4’x4’. This size is not only the textbook minimum but was written at a time where most fires were legacy fuels. With contemporary fuels and the increased BTU loads per pound, a greater production of heat and smoke occurs more rapidly and therefore necessitates a larger vent hole. With this in mind, a 4’x8’ hole is considered the minimum size and, after completion, should be assessed for any need for expansion or cutting of a second hole at another location. 34  6.1.2. Sounding Sounding is our primary means of detecting the stability of the surface we are operating on. Sounding is our safety. To provide the greatest degree of safety, the roof team leader will be the sounder. They will be the first on the roof and the last off of the roof. As the sounder, safety of the roof team is your responsibility. While the sawyer is cutting, you are gathering further information on your surroundings and watching for changes in conditions. To maintain the situational awareness, the act of swapping the saw to the sounder is highly discouraged, however there will be times when this will not be possible. Any hook will work for sounding but the best is the trash hook, followed by the New York roof hook, and lastly by the Wynn pole. The broad head of the trash hook makes it ideal for not punching through the roof surface, but also offering feedback for the stability. When we sound, we want to strike the roof surface to mimic the force our next step will have. If there is soft or spongy feeling, this should initiate a stop by the sounder. He should communicate to his roof team that the area ahead is a no-go zone. If a no-go zone is identified, all roof operations should take place behind that line. The roof team leader should also keep command updated of progress and completion as well as communicating with the attack team for coordination. 6.1.3. Procedures With our ladder placed to the roof in an advantageous position we can begin our vent by making access to the roof with our compliment of tools. Tools needed vary based on personal preference but need to include no less than a chain saw, a hook, and a flat head axe. For residential applications the roof will be taken by first arriving truck’s outside team and as a goal should be completed in under 90 seconds from the time you step on the roof. Later arriving truck companies or engine companies fulfilling this task should use caution in taking all 4 members to the roof. Unless there will be multiple saws in use, it adds extra, unneeded weight and does not lend to the time-to-completion of the task. 2 members per saw is ideal in residential applications: one sawyer and one sounder/safety. As the roof size increases in commercial and multi-family buildings so too does the need for personnel. Commercial buildings with flat roofs will be much more intensive in both personnel and equipment and should expect to take 4-6 minutes as a benchmark to open up. Once on the roof, the roof team will sound all the way and should attempt to walk the ridge to the location where the hole will be cut. The ridge is the most stable area above the eaves and is supported in unison by all rafters that hold the roof. Once stepping off of the ridge you are supported only by 2-3 rafter maximum. If the ladder is placed correctly, the roof team will be traveling from the least involved area to the most involved, giving their sounding a true representation of what the most stable area feels like while traveling toward the fire. Find the spot closest to the seat of the fire, make the cut, coordinate opening with the attack team via radio if you believe they’re not ready, louver the cut, and punch the ceiling out from above if 35 possible. As simple as this task sounds the following points should be stressed when performing vertical ventilation: Make the cut larger than you think you need. 4x4 ft is textbook minimum for residential, but is never good enough for modern fuels, plan on a 4x8 ft minimum ALWAYS coordinate ventilation with the attack team so they can anticipate a change in fire conditions Heavy smoke and fire exiting from the hole is dramatic and may alarm the IC, but that is merely a sign of the ventilation hole doing its job. Cutting high and close to the ridge is perfect for attic fires, for fires within the living area may require a cut closer over the seat of the fire in order to adequately ventilate the fire room(s) or hallway. Half Stories and Knee Walls are stubborn and require Vertical Ventilation to fully extinguish It is likely that you will find a well involved structure with significant fire involvement requiring a vent hole, but with a significant amount of roof real estate to choose from when cutting. In this case we want to cut in the spot which will do the best for those in the searchable spaces and the attack team making entry. Ideally, we want to vent as deep into the involved area as we can. The reason for this is that when the front door is opened, the flow path will naturally draw the fire away from the unburned area and limit lateral extension. A simple way to think about this is cutting as close over the seat of the fire as we can. 6.2. Considerations for Residential Dwelling When vertical ventilation is undertaken, the roof team must assess where the fire is located and ladder the building opposite of the fire. This allows the vent team to walk from the most stable area of the roof to the fire, sounding as they go to their desired location. If the roof is deemed too unstable to operate on, utilize a roof ladder or consider making the cut from the tip of the aerial or from the platform. The ideal tactic is to have a secondary means of egress from any and all roofs while venting, however this point becomes incredibly important when operating away from the ladder on a building of 2 stories or greater. If venting from the bucket or tip of the aerial, it is not as vital a concern to have a secondary means of egress as you are very unlikely to detach from your primary means of egress. In more contemporary residential dwellings with plywood or OSB decking we must understand that when exposed to fire the decking will be the first to fail. This is by virtue of the dimensions of the materials: ¾” decking versus typically 2”x6” rafter and ridge beams. Fire will burn faster through to the point of weakness ¾” plywood or OSB faster than a 1 ½” piece of solid lumber. Even in lighter weight construction decking will likely be closer to ½” with 2x4 roof joists the decking will still be the first to go. Nonetheless, when decking is suspect, use caution stepping on rafters. Use the roof ladder, stay on the ridge beam, or cut from the aerial. Giving the decking a solid sounding with a pole or hook will tell you a lot about what you’ll be walking on. 36 Strike hard in a 4-foot arc working your way to your cut location. If any weakness or lack of stability is found, go no further, and decide whether to make your cut or retreat. Finding weakness through sounding will usually present as easily poking through the roof surface when struck. 6.2.1. Photovoltaic Panels Photovoltaic panels or PV panels are more commonly referred to as solar panels and are becoming more and more prevalent across the city. There are many ways that solar panels are attached to the roof. Some panels are shingles that are snapped together and laid over the roof covering, others are mounted flush onto the shingles while others are mounted slightly above the roof covering. Solar panels can carry a charge and must never be destroyed or ruptured if it can be helped. Cutting the electrical wires will result in a charged line being exposed. Solar panels will have a shutoff switch near the power meter that can ensure the removal of power to the structure, however we have to keep in mind that the shutoff switch will not de-energize the array itself. Any roof real estate that contains solar panels should be avoided for roof ventilation operations and communicated to command. Ventilation holes would be cut in areas that do not contain solar panels. 6.2.2. Half Stories and Knee Walls Half story homes are basically built out and finished attic spaces. The presence of the half story is disguised since the extra space is in what would be the attic. 1 ½ story home, as seen in the pictures above, are the more prevalent in older, more established areas of Fort Worth however there are still the occasional 2 ½ story around town. Half stories can be seen as having windows Examples of Typical 1 ½ story homes 37 into the spaces which would be the attic. A key indicator in recognizing these types of residences is they will usually be older homes with a pitch that is close to or not walkable, usually steeper than 45 degrees. Windows in the gables or windowed dormers should be a red flag to suspect a half story but are not always a definite indicator. Look for other signs such as window unit air conditioners or curtains that will confirm suspicions that the area is finished out or used as additional space. Anatomy of a Half Story VOID Knee Walls VOID VOID The greatest tactical problem of the Half story is that knee walls create additional void spaces. Knee walls are walls that create triangular shaped void spaces. These spaces are important to the ventilation team as it will play a significant role in where the hole is placed. If fire is contained within the void, the roof team will need to cut on the side of the roof where the void is located. Incidents where fire is in the knee wall void will present with high heat and smoke, but interior crews will be unable to find any fire. Roof teams will need to cut over the void to relieve the heat and smoke and root out any fire contained within. In the case of half story homes, consideration should be given for a long, slender cut (half story long cut) with the construction of the rafters. Start at the ridge and cut down to the soffit, expecting to feel the top plate lumber of the knee wall which not only identifies its presence, but gives you evidence of where the living area stops, and the void begins. The Half Story Long Cut should span 2 rafter bays with the center rafter being the louver point. This type of cut is more beneficial on half story ventilation jobs than on typical common attics. It’s more time consuming due to the roof pitch not being walkable requiring the roof ladder or aerial for stability. In a half story fire, the added time will be worth the investment as voids are opened quickly and fires are prevented from becoming stubborn hunts for hidden areas. 38 The added benefit of cutting with construction is that it yields a greater square footage opening allowing more ventilation for the work. A 4’x8’ vent hole will give us 32 ft2 of opening. A cut on a roof that is 17 ft from ridge to soffit yields 45 ft2 of area when spanning just 2 bays. If a knee wall is encountered by the roof team, it must be communicated to all companies on scene, especially command. Be cautious that there could also be a third triangular void space below the ridge beam. Half story fires are different fires than single stories. If the stairwell is open to the top floor with no door to partition, it may result in significant and heavy heat and smoke build up on the top floor and may require ventilation. Ventilation may be best achieved by horizontal means, breaking out the dormer or gable window, but will be most efficient if cut as close over the stairwell as possible. Again, conditions drive tactics and the need for vertical ventilation at a lower floor fire should be understood and communicated. 6.2.3. The Two Story with Bonus Tactically, the focus in identifying the half story is to understand that interconnected void spaces will exist. If ceiling is pulled in one spot, it could contain smoke or fire fed from another interconnected void. In the modern two-story homes where a bonus room is built into the attic space, we have a very similar problem to a legacy half story. If you find roof features in a two- story home that are present that are at the single-story level, you will have void spaces that connect to other spaces you are not connecting. As we see in the pictures, it is obviously a two- 39 story, but with the garage presenting with single story roof features, it will create triangular voids that must be expected to contain fire and investigated for extension. These types of homes create a significant tactical challenge and are the most prevalent construction type of modern two-story homes in Fort Worth. Much the same as in apartment buildings, do not expect fire stops or partitions between void spaces. Failing to understand and expect fire in the void spaces can lead to fire travel, high heat conditions, and the potential for rapid fire events. 6.3. Commercial Building Considerations Vertical Ventilation in commercial buildings is primarily dependent on the type of construction, conditions, and risk analysis. Flat roof structures with built up tar roofs take more time to ventilate properly than a standard residential roof. You must forecast how long it will take to complete the hole compared to the good it will do. Rigid frame metal buildings are the most stable of the Type II buildings and can be recognized by having the look of a tilt wall, possibly with sheet metal exterior, however they will have a peaked roof system. The skeleton of these buildings is built with a welded or bolted I beam system which will take much longer to heat and fail than the flat roof bar joist metal trusses. Bar Joist trusses will not be present in a peaked roof building. We must still use caution on these roof systems. While many have purlins between the heavier supports to provide stability between spans, ensure you are standing on a solid area prior to making your cuts. The 40 sheet metal provides little rigid support to walk on and most of the rigidity comes from the roofing materials. Trying to cut a large enough area will require you to operate on a portion of the decking that may be unsupported by a beam or purlin. Flat roof structures with steel bar-joist or wood trusses must be conservatively approached due to their tendency to fail in large areas under heavy fire conditions. Bar Joists and other trusses in large spans can be spaced as much as 4 feet apart and can fail in large sections. Much the same as a residence look at what is not burning, start there and sound your way to the cut location. A good benchmark for completion of vertical ventilation in commercial buildings is 4-6 minutes from the time you make the roof. If you look 10 minutes ahead in the incident and find that the fire will progress further, or multiple hose lines will be in use, then taking the roof is warranted. On incidents involving a large commercial or multi-dwelling occupancy where vertical ventilation is needed, the Truck Company should function as one team. If conditions are rapidly evolving, it may be the best to leave the Engineer positioned at the turntable and the remaining company members accessing the roof. Consideration should be given to requesting multiple truck companies for operation as Roof Division due to the amount of work involved in venting commercial occupancies. Multiple saws/types of saws may need to be taken to the roof due to the wide array of roof types which may be encountered. 6.4. Trench Cut A Trench Cut is a long, narrow cut or cuts that are used primarily to cut off fire extension. Akin to digging a fire line in a wildland incident, they’re typically talked about with flat roof multiple 41 dwellings. In Fort Worth, the time we would most likely use a trench cut is in apartment buildings with peaked roofs. The Trench Cut is also time consuming, but with the prevalence of common attic spaces in apartments, a tactic that should be understood and utilized. Trench cuts are cut ahead of a fire in order to create a defensive line that will impede or slow lateral travel. When utilizing the trench cut, multiple saws and at least 2 crews will be needed to undertake the work, so call for help and relay the urgency and equipment needed. The first step to the Trench Cut is to create a standard heat hole for the attic space as close to the fire as possible, just the same as your standard vertical ventilation hole. Doing so will provide relief and buy additional time for you to begin the trench. If multiple crews are present on the roof, one can begin with the heat hole, while the other moves further down and begins the trench. After the heat hole and to actually make the Trench Cut, find a spot far enough ahead of the fire that will ensure you have the time to cut your hole. Start as high on the ridge as possible and make a small inspection cut. If you find fire or heavy charged smoke coming from the hole, you will not have enough time to make your trench before the fire passes you, negating the use of the trench. Move further away and cut another inspection hole. Once placement is decided upon, work down toward the soffit making the