Training and Development PDF

PART THREE Training and Development Jonathan Weiss/Shutterstock 8 Training and ­Developing Employees  LEARNING OBJECTIVES Co...

PART THREE Training and Development Jonathan Weiss/Shutterstock 8 Training and ­Developing Employees  LEARNING OBJECTIVES Company’s When you finish studying this chapter, you should Strategic Goals be able to: 8-1 Summarize the purpose and process of employee orientation. 8-2 Employee Competencies Give an example of how to design onboarding and Behaviors Required to improve employee engagement. for Company to Achieve These Strategic Goals 8-3 List and briefly explain each of the steps in the training process. 8-4 Explain how to use five training techniques. Training and Devel opment 8-5 List and briefly discuss four ­management Co Placem t and development methods. mp ent Recruitmen ensa 8-6 List and briefly discuss the importance of HR Policies and Practices tion Required to Produce the steps in leading organizational change. Employee Competencies 8-7 and Behaviors Explain why a controlled study may be gal superior for evaluating the training program’s Le t Re m en lat E m plo ions ron d effects. Envi ic an yee g Strate F or a century AT&T was America’s “phone company,” but it has changed dramatically in the past few years. WHERE ARE WE NOW... In 2000, its wireless network data traffic was negligible.1 Chapters 6 and 7 focused on the methods The part of its business depending on software was managers use to interview and select similarly negligible, but by 2020 it will have risen to 75%. employees. Once employees are on board, Like competitors such as Comcast, AT&T’s strategy is the employer must train them. The purpose of this chapter is to increase your effectiveness to drive the company toward a new digital future, one in training employees. The main topics we’ll in which telecommunications, media, and entertain- cover include Orienting and Onboarding ment converge, and customers can get the information, New Employees, Designing Onboarding to Improve Employee Engagement, The access, and entertainment they need, anywhere, on Training Process, Implementing Training whatever digital device they choose to use. That’s excit- Programs, Management Development ing for AT&T’s customers and shareholders. But what Methods, Leading Organizational Change, and Evaluating the Training Effort. Then, in do you do with the 150,000 or so AT&T employees who Chapter 9, we’ll turn to appraising employees. were hired by a phone company years ago to do very different, nondigital, nonsoftware jobs? We’ll see what AT&T did.      237 238    PART 3 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT WLE Orienting and Onboarding New Employees K NO DG Carefully selecting employees doesn’t guarantee they’ll perform effectively. Even high- E BASE potential employees can’t do their jobs if they don’t know what to do or how to do it. Making sure your employees do know what to do and how to do it is the ­purpose of orientation and training. The human resources department usually designs the orienta- LEARNING OBJECTIVE 8-1 tion and training programs, but the supervisor does most of the day-to-day orienting Summarize the purpose and and training. Every manager therefore should know how to orient and train employees. process of employee orientation. We will start with orientation. The Purposes of Employee Orientation/Onboarding employee orientation Employee orientation (or onboarding) provides new employees with the basic back- A procedure for providing new ground information (such as computer passwords and company rules) they need to employees with basic background do their jobs; ideally it should also help them start becoming emotionally attached to information about the firm. and engaged in the firm.2 The manager wants to accomplish four things when orient- ing new employees: 1. Make the new employee feel welcome and at home and part of the team. 2. Make sure the new employee has the basic information to function effectively, such as e-mail access, personnel policies and benefits, and work behavior expectations. 3. Help the new employee understand the organization in a broad sense (its past, present, culture, and strategies and vision of the future). 4. Start socializing the person into the firm’s culture and ways of doing things.3 For example, the Mayo Clinic’s “heritage and culture” program emphasizes Mayo Clinic values such as teamwork, integrity, customer service, and mutual respect.4 The Orientation Process Onboarding ideally begins before the person’s first day, with a welcome note, orienta- tion schedule, and list of documents (such as tax documents) needed the first day. On the first day, make sure colleagues know the new employee is starting, and arrange for one or more of them to take the person to lunch. On subsequent days, the new employee should meet colleagues in other departments. After about two weeks, speak with the employee to identify any concerns.5 The length of the onboarding program depends on what you cover. Some take several hours. The human resource specialist (or, in smaller firms, the office manager) performs the first part of the orientation by explaining basic matters like working hours and benefits. Then the supervisor continues by explaining the department’s orga- nization, introducing the person to his or her new colleagues, familiarizing him or her with the workplace, and reducing first-day jitters. At a minimum, the orientation should provide information on matters such as employee benefits, personnel policies, safety measures and regulations, and a facilities tour; making the new employee feel special and proud about working for the company is advisable;6 new employees should receive (and sign for) print or Internet-based employee handbooks covering such mat- ters. You’ll find a variety of orientation checklists online.7 At the other extreme, L’Oréal’s onboarding program extends about 2 years. It includes roundtable discussions, meetings with key insiders, on-the-job learning, indi- vidual mentoring, and experiences such as site visits.8 Supervisors should be vigilant. Follow up on and encourage new employees to engage in activities (such as taking breaks with colleagues) that will enable them to “learn the ropes.” Especially for new employees with disabilities, integration and social- ization are highly influenced by coworkers’ and supervisors’ behavior.9 Those being oriented should show they’re involved. Two things seem to show ­managers that the people they’re orienting are engaged. First, show you’re trying to master and perform the tasks at hand (such as learning about the new job and com- pany). Second, show you’re trying to assimilate socially, for instance by interacting with new colleagues.10  CHAPTER 8 Training and ­Developing Employees    239 Employers should onboard new executives too. In one survey “poor grasp of how the organization works” was a problem for 69% of new senior executives. This onboarding should include the firm’s operational plans and key business areas, key team members’ career histories, key external stakeholders, and briefings on the firm's culture and how it “gets things done.”11 THE EMPLOYEE HANDBOOK Employers should assume that their employee handbook’s contents are legally binding commitments. Even apparently sensible handbook policies (such as “the company will not retaliate against employees who raise concerns about important issues in the workplace”) can backfire without proper disclaimers. The handbook should include a disclaimer stating “nothing in this handbook should be taken as creating a binding contract between employer and employees, and all employ- ment is on an at will basis.”12 Say that statements of company policies, benefits, and regulations do not constitute the terms and conditions of an employment contract, either expressed or implied. Do not insert statements such as “No employee will be fired without just cause” or statements that imply or state that employees have tenure. The firm’s handbook policies may then evolve, as the prevailing political climate—for instance in terms of EEOC and union–management relations guidelines—change.13 ORIENTATION TECHNOLOGY Employers use technology to support orientation. For example, at the University of Cincinnati, new employees spend about 45 minutes online learning about their new employer’s mission, organization, and policies and procedures. ION Geophysical uses an online onboarding portal solution called RedCarpet. It includes a streaming video welcome message, and photos and profiles of new colleagues.14 With Workday’s iPhone app, users can search their company’s direc- tory for names, images, and contact information; call or e-mail coworkers directly; and view physical addresses on Google Maps.15 Some employers place scannable QR codes along the orientation tour’s stops, to provide information about each department and its role.16 Employers use team activities and gamification (awarding points for com- pleting parts of the program, for instance) to energize their onboarding programs.17 LEARNING OBJECTIVE 8-2 Employee Engagement Guide for Managers: Give an example of how to design onboarding to improve Onboarding at Toyota employee engagement. In many firms today, orientation goes well beyond providing basic information about things like work hours.18 Onboarding at Toyota Motor Manufacturing USA illus- trates this. While it does cover routine topics such as company benefits, its main aim is to engage Toyota’s new employees in the firm’s ideology of quality, teamwork, personal development, open communication, and mutual respect.19 The initial program takes about 4 days:20 Day 1: The first day begins early and includes an overview of the program, a welcome to the company, and a discussion of the firm’s organizational structure and human resource department by the firm’s human resources vice president. He or she devotes about an hour and a half to discuss- ing Toyota history and culture, and about 2 hours to employee benefits. ­Managers then spend several hours discussing Toyota’s commitment to quality and teamwork. Day 2: A typical second day focuses first on the importance of mutual respect, teamwork, and open communication at Toyota. The rest of the day covers topics such as safety, environmental affairs, and the Toyota production system. Day 3: Given the importance of working in teams at Toyota, this day begins with 2 ½ to 3 hours devoted to communication training, such as “making requests and giving feedback.” The rest of the day covers matters such as 240    PART 3 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT Toyota’s problem-solving methods, quality assurance, hazard communica- tions, and safety. Day 4: Topics today include teamwork training and the Toyota suggestion system. This session also covers what work teams are responsible for and how to work together as a team. The afternoon session covers fire prevention and fire extinguisher training. By the end of day 4, new employees should be well on their way to being engaged in Toyota’s ideology, in particular its mis- sion of quality and its values of teamwork, continuous improvement, and problem solving.21 The bottom line is that there’s more to orienting employees than introducing them to new coworkers. Even without a program like Toyota’s, use the onboarding opportunity to start instilling in the new employee the company values and traditions in which you expect the person to become engaged. LEARNING OBJECTIVE 8-3 Overview of the Training Process List and briefly explain each of Directly after orientation, training should begin. Training means giving new or the steps in the training process. current employees the skills that they need to perform their jobs, such as showing new salespeople how to sell your product. Training might involve having the current training jobholder explain the job to the new hire, or multiweek classroom or Internet classes. The process of teaching new or cur- In one recent year, employers spent about $1,300 per employee on training.22 rent employees the basic skills they Training is important.23 If even high-potential employees don’t know what to need to perform their jobs. do and how to do it, they will improvise or do nothing useful at all. Furthermore, high achievers often begin looking for new positions due to dissatisfaction with inad- equate training.24 Employers also know that training fosters engagement. For example, Coca-Cola UK uses employee development plans, training, and leadership develop- ment to attract and retain the best employees and inspire their engagement.25 KNOW YOUR EMPLOYMENT LAW Training and the Law Managers should understand training’s legal implications. With respect to discrimina- tion, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and related legislation requires that the employer avoid discriminatory actions in all aspects of its human resource manage- ment process, and that applies to selecting which employees to train. Employers face much the same consequences for discriminating against protected individuals when selecting candidates for training as they would in selecting candidates for jobs or for promotion. negligent training Inadequate training can also expose the employer to liability for negligent training. A situation where an employer As one expert puts it, “It’s clear from the case law that where an employer fails to train fails to train adequately, and the adequately and an employee subsequently does harm to third parties, the court will find employee subsequently harms a the employer liable.” Among other things, the employer should confirm the applicant/ third party. employee’s claims of skill and experience, provide adequate training (particularly where employees work with dangerous equipment), and evaluate the training to ensure that it is actually reducing risks.26 Aligning Strategy and Training The employer’s strategic plans should guide its long-range training goals.27 In essence, the task is to identify the employee behaviors the firm will need in order to execute its strategy, and then to deduce what skills and knowledge employees will need. Then, put in place training goals and programs to instill these competencies. For example, with the health-care landscape changing, the Walgreens chain had to reformulate its strategy. It broadened its offerings, and today is the second-largest dispenser of flu shots in the United States. Its in-store health clinics provide medical care. It purchased drugstore.com.  CHAPTER 8 Training and ­Developing Employees    241 The strategic changes affected the skills that Walgreens employees required, and therefore its training and other staffing policies. For example, Walgreens established Walgreens University. It offers more than 400 programs Walgreens employees can take to build their skills (and even get college credit in pharmacy-related topics). For example, some programs develop assistant store manager skills, and Walgreens in-store health clinic nurse practitioners can take courses to expand their medical care exper- tise. Thus, Walgreens reformulated its training (and other) HR policies to produce the employee skills the company needed to support its new strategy.28 The accompanying Strategic Context feature provides another example. IMPROVING PERFORMANCE: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT Supporting AT&T’s Strategy for a Digital Future AT&T’s strategy is to drive the company toward a new digital future (“from cables to the cloud,” to paraphrase a top manager). But what do you do with the employees hired years ago to do very dif- ferent jobs?29 AT&T embarked on a massive retraining program, called Workforce 2020. It had three main pillars: Skill needs identification, training and development, and evaluation. First, AT&T’s managers identified the skills its employees would need for its new digital future, along with the current skills gaps, and what it called “future role profiles.” These individual profiles itemized the skills the company and therefore each of its employees would need. Second, AT&T helped employees identify and obtain the required training and development. For example, it created an online employee career platform. This contains tools such as for assessing one’s aptitudes against the jobs AT&T would need. It also contains online courses, ultra-short “nanodegree” training programs (on coding, for instance), and access to special online graduate and undergraduate degree programs. Third, AT&T evaluates the effectiveness of its Workforce 2020 program in terms of Activity, Hydrau- lics, Business Outcomes, and Sentiment. Activity means measuring things such as skills gaps. Hydraulics means people actually moving into new roles throughout AT&T. Business outcomes means tangible organizational improvements, for instance in efficiency. And, sentiment refers to measuring attitudes such as employees’ inclination to recommend AT&T as a place to work. AT&T’s Worforce 2020 program enabled its current employees to develop the skills AT&T’s digital convergence strategy required. Over 140,000 employees were recently pursuing the learning they need to fill AT&T’s new jobs and roles. MyLab Management Talk About It 1 If your professor has assigned this, go to the Assignments section of www.pearson.com/ mylab/management to complete this discussion question. What other human resource ­management steps should AT&T take in order to help it achieve its digital futures strategy? WLE K NO DG The ADDIE Five-Step Training Process E BASE The employer should use a rational training process. The gold standard here is still the basic analysis-design-develop-implement-evaluate (ADDIE) training process model that training experts have used for years.30 As an example, one training vendor describes its training process as follows:31 Analyze the training need. Design the overall training program. Develop the course (actually assembling/creating the training materials). Implement training, by actually training the targeted employee group using methods such as on-the-job or online training. Evaluate the course’s effectiveness. We’ll look at each step next. 242    PART 3 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT WLE Analyzing the Training Needs K NO DG The training needs analysis may address the employer’s strategic/longer-term training E needs and/or its current training needs. BASE STRATEGIC TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS Strategic goals (perhaps to enter new lines of business or to expand abroad) often mean the firm will have to fill new jobs. Strategic training needs analysis identifies the training employees will need to fill these future jobs. For example, when Wisconsin-based Signicast Corp. decided to build a new high-tech plant, its top managers knew the plant’s employees would need new skills to run the computerized machines. They worked closely with their HR team to formulate hiring and training programs to ensure the firm would have the people required to populate the new plant. CURRENT EMLPLOYEES’ TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS Most training efforts aim to improve current performance—specifically training new employees, and those whose perfor- mance is deficient. How you analyze current training needs depends on whether you’re training new or current employees. The main task for new employees is to determine what the job entails and to break it down into subtasks, each of which you then teach to the new employee. Analyzing current employees’ training needs is more complex, because you must also ascertain whether training is the solution. For example, performance may be down due to poor motivation. Managers use task analysis to identify new employ- ees’ training needs, and performance analysis to identify current employees’ training needs. NEW EMPLOYEES: TASK ANALYSIS FOR ANALYZING TRAINING NEEDS Particularly with lower- level workers, it’s customary to hire inexperienced personnel and train them. The aim here is to give these new employees the skills and knowledge they need to do the job. task analysis Task analysis is a detailed study of the job to determine what specific skills (like A detailed study of a job to identify reading spreadsheets) the job requires. Here job descriptions and job specifications the specific skills required. are essential. They list the job’s specific duties and skills, which are the basic reference points in determining the training required. Managers also uncover training needs by reviewing performance standards, performing the job, and questioning current jobholders and supervisors.32 Some managers supplement the job description and specification with a task analy- sis record form. This form (see Table 8-1) consolidates information regarding required tasks and skills. As it illustrates, the form contains six columns of information, such as “Skills or knowledge required.” CURRENT EMPLOYEES: PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF TRAINING NEEDS For underperforming current employees, you can’t assume that training is the solution. In other words, is it performance analysis lack of training, or something else? Performance analysis is the process of verifying Verifying that there is a performance that there is a performance deficiency and determining whether the employer should deficiency and determining whether correct such deficiencies through training or some other means (like transferring the that deficiency should be corrected employee). through training or through some Performance analysis begins with comparing the person’s actual performance to other means (such as transferring what it should be. Doing so helps to confirm that there is a performance deficiency, the employee). and (hopefully) helps the manager to identify its cause. Examples of performance deficiencies might be: I expect each salesperson to make 10 new contracts per week, but John averages only six. Other plants our size average no more than two serious accidents per month; we’re averaging five.  CHAPTER 8 Training and ­Developing Employees    243 TABLE 8-1 Sample Task Analysis Record Form Task List When and How Quantity and Conditions Under Skills or Where Best Often Performed Quality of Which Performed Knowledge Learned Performance Required 1. Operate paper cutter 4 times per day Noisy pressroom: distractions 1.1 Start motor 4 times per day On the job 1.2 Set cutting distance ±tolerance of Read gauge On the job 0.007 in. 1.3 Place paper on cut- Must be completely Lift paper correctly On the job ting table even to prevent uneven cut 1.4 Push paper up to Must be even On the job cutter 1.5 Grasp safety release 100% of time, for Essential for safety On the job but with left hand safety practice first with no distractions 1.6 Grasp cutter release Must keep both On the job but with right hand hands on releases practice first with no distractions 1.7 Simultaneously pull Must keep both On the job but safety release with hands on releases practice first with left hand and cutter no distractions release with right hand 1.8 Wait for cutter to 100% of time, for Must keep both On the job but retract safety hands on releases practice first with no distractions 1.9 Retract paper Wait until cutter On the job but retracts practice first with no distractions 1.10 Shut off 100% of time, for On the job but safety practice first with no distractions 2. Operate printing press 2.1 Start motor Note: Task analysis record form showing some of the tasks and subtasks performed by a printing press operator. Ways to identify how a current employee is doing include Performance appraisals Job-related performance data (including productivity, absenteeism and tardiness, grievances, waste, late deliveries, product quality, repairs, and customer complaints) Observations by supervisors or other specialists Interviews with the employee or his or her supervisor Tests of things like job knowledge, skills, and attendance Attitude surveys Individual employee daily diaries Assessment center results Special performance gap analytical software, such as from Saba Software, Inc. CAN’T DO/WON’T DO Uncovering why performance is down is the heart of performance analysis. The aim here is to distinguish between can’t-do and won’t-do problems. First, determine whether it is a can’t-do problem and, if so, its specific causes. 244    PART 3 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT For example: The employees don’t know what to do or what your standards are; there are obstacles such as lack of tools or supplies; there are no job aids (such as color- coded wires that show assemblers which wire goes where); you’ve hired people who haven’t the required skills; or training is inadequate. Or, it might be a won’t-do problem. Here employees could do a good job if they wanted to. One expert says, “Perhaps the biggest trap that trainers fall into is [devel- oping] training for problems that training just won’t fix.”33 For instance, the better solution might be to change the incentives. WLE K NO DG COMPETENCY PROFILES AND MODELS IN TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT Employers often focus on building work-related competencies or skills.34 The competency model E BASE consolidates, usually in one diagram, a precise overview of the competencies some- one would need to do the job well. Figure 4-10 (on page 122) was one example. For competency model example, the Association for Talent Development (ATD) built a competencies model A graphic model that consolidates, for the job of training and development professional. It includes 10 core trainer usually in one diagram, a precise overview of the competencies (the competencies, including being able to achieve performance improvement, instruc- knowledge, skills, and behaviors) tional design, and training delivery. As one competency example, the model describes someone would need to do a instructional design as “designing, creating, and developing formal learning solutions job well. to meet organizational needs; analyzing and selecting the most appropriate strategy, methodologies, and technologies to maximize the learning experience and impact.”35 Training a trainer would thus require, for instance, making sure he or she could, once training is complete, exhibit these skills and knowledge (competencies).36 Competencies-oriented training is similar to other training. Trainees often learn through a mix of real-world exercises, teamwork, classes, and online resources, under a learning coach; the aim is to show mastery of particular competencies.37 This often involves starting with a list of competencies to be learned, criteria for assessing com- petencies mastery, and examples of the competencies (such as using a spreadsheet). Students then complete their projects and assessors evaluate their competencies. Designing the Training Program Armed with the needs analysis results, the manager next designs the training pro- gram. Design means planning the overall training program including training objec- tives, delivery methods, and program evaluation. Substeps include setting performance objectives, creating a detailed training outline (all training program steps from start to finish), choosing a program delivery method (such as lectures or Web), and verifying the overall program design with management. Most employers can build training programs based on existing online and offline content offered by training content providers. Tinpixels/Getty Images  CHAPTER 8 Training and ­Developing Employees    245 The design should include summaries of how you plan to set a training environ- ment that motivates your trainees both to learn and to transfer what they learn to the job. It is also here that the manager reviews possible training program content (includ- ing workbooks, exercises, and activities), and estimates a training program budget.38 If the program will use technology, the manager should include a review of the technology as part of the analysis.39 We’ll look more closely next at several specific design issues. SETTING LEARNING OBJECTIVES40 At the outset, the trainer should clearly define the program’s desired learning outcomes.41 “Clients” will usually phrase their training requests in broad terms, such as “we need sales training.” It’s the trainer’s job to unearth the reasons behind the request, so as to formulate tangible program outcomes (such as “improved product knowledge”). Training, development, learning, or (more generally) instructional objectives should specify in measurable terms what the trainee should be able to do after successfully completing the training program.42 For example: The technical service representative will be able to adjust the color guidelines on this HP Officejet All-in-One printer copier within 10 minutes according to the device’s specifications. The learning objectives should first address any performance deficiencies that you identified. Thus, if the sales team’s sales are 40% too low, the objectives should focus on ensuring that the team members get the product knowledge they need to boost sales. But at the same time, the learning objectives must be practical, given the constraints. One constraint is financial. The employer will generally want to see and approve a training budget for the program. Typical costs include the development costs (of ­having, say, a human resource specialist working on the program for a week or two), the direct and indirect (overhead) costs of the trainers’ time, participant compensation (for the time they’re actually being trained), and the cost of evaluating the program. There are algorithms for estimating training program costs, for instance, in terms of labor hours and direct costs.43 The question, of course, isn’t just “Can we afford this program?” but “Does it pay to spend this much, given the benefits we’ll receive—will it improve performance, and if so by how much?” Therefore, prepare to defend the program on a benefits-versus-costs basis. There are also other constraints to consider. For example, time constraints may require reducing three or four desirable learning objectives to one or two. CREATING A MOTIVATIONAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Municipalities running programs for traffic violators know there’s often no better way to get someone’s attention than to present a terrifying video accident. They know the best training starts not with a lecture but by making the material meaningful. The same is true at work. Learning requires both ability and motivation, and the training program’s design should accommodate both. In terms of ability, the learner– trainee needs (among other things) the required reading, writing, and mathematics skills. Trainees are rarely homogeneous, for instance, in terms of intellectual capacity. In setting the learning environment, the manager therefore should address several trainee-ability issues. For example, how will our program accommodate differences in trainee abilities? Do we need to provide remedial training? Second, the learner must also be motivated. No manager should waste his or her time showing a disinterested employee how to do something (even if he or she has the requisite ability). Many books exist on how to motivate employees, but several specific observations are pertinent here.44 The training program’s effects will be diminished if trainees return to their jobs to snide comments such as, “I hope you liked your little vacation” from colleagues. Therefore, the low-hanging fruit in motivating trainees is to make sure the trainee’s peers and supervisor support the training effort. Ideally, particularly for larger programs, top management should visibly support the program. Beyond that, various 246    PART 3 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT motivation theories provide useful guidance. From behavior modification, we know that the training should provide opportunities for positive reinforcement. “Expectancy theory” shows us that the trainees need to know they have the ability to succeed in the program, and that the value to them of completing the program is high. Self-efficacy is crucial—trainees must believe they have the capacity to succeed. We can summarize such motivational points as follows. MAKE THE LEARNING MEANINGFUL Learners are more motivated to learn something that has meaning for them. Therefore: 1. Provide a bird’s-eye view of the material that you are going to present. For example, show why it’s important, and provide an overview.45 2. Use familiar examples. 3. Organize the information so you can present it logically. 4. Use familiar terms and concepts. 5. Use visual aids. 6. Create a perceived training need in trainees’ minds.46 In one study, pilots who experienced pretraining accident-related events subsequently learned more from an accident-reduction training program than did those experiencing fewer such events.47 Similarly, “before the training, managers need to sit down and talk with the trainee about why they are enrolled in the class, what they are expected to learn, and how they can use it on the job.” Creating “a desire to learn is crucial.”48 7. Goal setting is important. In one study, some trainees set goals at the start of the program for the skills they were being taught. After training, they were rated more highly on these skills than were those who hadn’t set goals.49 MAKE SKILLS TRANSFER OBVIOUS AND EASY Make it easy to transfer new skills and behav- iors from the training site to the job site: 1. Maximize the similarity between the training situation and the work situation. 2. Provide adequate practice. 3. Label or identify each feature of the machine and/or step in the process. 4. Direct the trainees’ attention to important aspects of the job. For example, if you’re training a customer service rep to handle calls, explain the different types of calls he or she will encounter.50 5. Provide “heads-up” information. For example, supervisors often face stressful conditions. You can reduce the negative impact by letting supervisory trainees know they might occur.51 6. Trainees learn best at their own pace. If possible, let them pace themselves. 7. Intermingle opportunities for trainees to use their new skills or knowledge throughout the training.52 REINFORCE THE LEARNING Make sure the learner gets plenty of feedback. In particular: 1. Trainees learn best when the trainers immediately reinforce correct responses, perhaps with a quick “well done.” 2. Learning diminishes late in the day. Partial-day training is generally superior to full-day training. 3. Provide follow-up assignments at the close of training, so trainees are reinforced by applying back on the job what they’ve learned.53 4. Incentivize. For example, Hudson Trail Outfitters offers trainees incentives of outdoor gear for completing training program segments.54 ENSURE TRANSFER OF LEARNING TO THE JOB Less than 35% of trainees seem to be trans- ferring what they learned to their jobs a year after training. Improving on that requires steps at each training stage. Prior to training, get trainee and supervisor input in design- ing the program, institute a training attendance policy, and encourage employees to participate. During training, provide trainees with training experiences and conditions (sur- roundings, equipment) that resemble the actual work environment.  CHAPTER 8 Training and ­Developing Employees    247 After training, reinforce what trainees learned, for instance, reward employees for using new skills.55 TRENDS SHAPING HR: DIGITAL AND SOCIAL MEDIA When designing the program, a key question is how to deliver it. Increasingly, this the cloud occurs via “the cloud.” Basically, the cloud refers to placing software programs and Refers to placing software programs services on vendors’ remote servers, from which they can then deliver these programs and services on vendors’ remote and services seamlessly to employees’ digital devices. servers, from which they can then Cloud-based training revolutionized training, by enabling employers to outsource deliver these programs and services much or all of their training activities. Because the vendor hosts both the courses and seamlessly to employees’ digital the overall learning management system, the employer need not concern itself with devices. setting up or updating the programs on its own computers; the vendor manages the software. Furthermore, the more advanced cloud-based learning management systems let trainees access the training software and courses from wherever they are, using a variety of mobile devices. This not only improves convenience, but also facilitates collaboration among employees when, for instance, they’re working together on a training project. Developing the Program Program development means actually assembling the program’s training content and materials. It means choosing the specific content the program will present, as well as designing/choosing the specific instructional methods (lectures, cases, Web-based, and so on) you will use. Training equipment and materials include (for example) iPads, workbooks, lectures, PowerPoint slides, Web- and computer-based activities, course activities, and trainer resources (manuals, for instance). Some employers create their own training content, but there’s also a vast selec- tion of online and offline content. The Association for Talent Development’s Web site (www.td.org) illustrates the many off-the-shelf training and development offerings avail- able. It includes certificate programs on topics such as coaching, consulting skills, and presentation skills, as well as online workshops on hundreds of topics such as game design, survey design, and developing a mentoring program. (Trainers Warehouse and HRdirect are among many other suppliers.)56 MyLab Management Apply It! What do you think of how Wilson Learning conducts its training programs? If your professor has assigned this activity, go to the Assignments section of www.pearson.com/mylab/management to complete the video exercise. HR in Action at the Hotel Paris As Lisa and the CFO reviewed measures of the Hotel Paris’s current training efforts, it was clear that some changes were in order. Most other service companies provided at least 40 hours of training per employee per year, while the Hotel Paris offered, on average, no more than five or six. To see how they handled this, see the case on pages 271–272. LEARNING OBJECTIVE 8-4 Implementing the Training Program Explain how to use five training Once you design and develop the training program, management can implement and techniques. then evaluate it. Implement means actually provide the training, using one or more of the instructional methods we discuss next. Note first that there are several practical steps one can take before, during, and after the actual training to improve trainees’ learning and engagement: Before the actual training, send announcements far in advance, provide direc- tions, provide a contact, and make sure participants have pretraining materials. 248    PART 3 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT During training, make sure all participants have a point of contact in case they have questions or need guidance. After training, remember training does not end when the program ends. Instead, periodically ascertain that trainees are transferring their learning to the job.57 K NO WLE DG On-the-Job Training BASE E We’ll see that much training today takes place online or uses other digital tools such as iPhones or iPads. However, much training is still in-person and interpersonal, as on-the-job training notably illustrates. on-the-job training (OJT) On-the-job training (OJT) means having a person learn a job by actually doing Training a person to learn a job it. Every employee, from mailroom clerk to CEO, should get on-the-job training when while working on it. he or she joins a firm. In many firms, OJT is the only training available.58 TYPES OF ON-THE-JOB TRAINING The most familiar on-the-job training is the coach- ing or understudy method. Here, an experienced worker or the trainee’s supervisor trains the employee. This may involve simply observing the supervisor, or (preferably) having the supervisor or job expert show the new employee the ropes, step-by-step. On-the-job training was part of multifaceted training at Men’s Wearhouse, which combined on-the-job training with comprehensive initiation programs and continuing- education seminars. Every manager was accountable for developing his or her subordi- nates.59 Job rotation, in which an employee (usually a management trainee) moves from job to job at planned intervals, is another OJT technique. Special assignments similarly give lower-level executives firsthand experience in working on actual problems. Do not take the on-the-job training effort for granted. Instead, plan out and struc- ture the OJT experience. Train the trainers themselves (often the employees’ supervi- sors), and provide training materials. (They should know, for instance, how to motivate learners). Because low expectations may translate into poor trainee performance, supervisor/trainers should emphasize their high expectations. Effective coaching is essential. In one study of pharmaceuticals sales representatives, supervisors’ coach- ing skills were associated with significant differences in goal attainment between sales districts.60 Many firms use peer training for OJT.61 For example, some adopt “peer-to-peer development.” The employer selects several employees who spend several days per week over several months learning what the technology or change will entail, and then spread the new skills and values to their colleagues back on the job.62 Others use employee teams to analyze jobs and prepare training materials. Some teams reportedly conduct task analyses more quickly and effectively than did training experts. Figure 8-1 presents steps to help ensure OJT success.63 Apprenticeship Training apprenticeship training Apprenticeship training is a process by which people become skilled workers, usu- A structured process by which peo- ally through a combination of formal learning and long-term on-the-job training, ple become skilled workers through often under a master craftsperson’s tutelage. When steelmaker Dofasco (now part of a combination of classroom instruc- ArcelorMittal) discovered that many of its employees would be retiring within 5 to tion and on-the-job training. 10 years, it revived its apprenticeship program. New recruits spent about 32 months learning various jobs under the tutelage of experienced employees.64 Many apprenticeships pay well. For example, at the Tennessee Valley Authority, starting apprentices earn about $40,000 a year and can earn up to $65,000, before moving onto $75,000 jobs as linemen.65 The Manufacturing Institute provides a step-by-step manual for creating apprenticeship programs.66 The U.S. Department of Labor promotes apprenticeship programs. More than 460,000 apprentices participate in 28,000 programs, and registered programs can receive federal and state contracts and other assistance.67 The Trump administration recently proposed boosting government spending on its Apprenticeship USA program, to encourage more employers to offer apprenticeships.68 Figure 8-2 lists popular apprenticeships.  CHAPTER 8 Training and ­Developing Employees    249 FIGURE 8-1 Steps in Step 1: Prepare the learner ­On-the-Job Training 1. Put the learner at ease. 2. Explain why he or she is being taught. 3. Create interest and find out what the learner already knows about the job. 4. Explain the whole job and relate it to some job the worker already knows. 5. Place the learner as close to the normal working position as possible. 6. Familiarize the worker with equipment, materials, tools, and trade terms. Step 2: Present the operation 1. Explain quantity and quality requirements. 2. Go through the job at the normal work pace. 3. Go through the job at a slow pace several times, explaining each step. Between operations, explain the difficult parts, or those in which errors are likely to be made. 4. Again, go through the job at a slow pace several times; explain the key points. 5. Have the learner explain the steps as you go through the job at a slow pace. Step 3: Do a tryout 1. Have the learner go through the job several times, slowly, explaining each step to you. Correct mistakes and, if necessary, do some of the complicated steps the first few times. 2. Run the job at the normal pace. 3. Have the learner do the job, gradually building up skill and speed. 4. Once the learner can do the job, let the work begin, but don’t abandon him or her. Step 4: Follow-up 1. Designate to whom the learner should go for help. 2. Gradually decrease supervision, checking work from time to time. 3. Correct faulty work patterns before they become a habit. Show why the method you suggest is superior. 4. Compliment good work. Informal Learning Training experts use the notation “70/20/10” to show that as a rule, 70% of job learning occurs informally on or off the job, 20% reflects social interactions (for instance, among employees on the job), and only 10% is actual formal training.69 A sampling of what would constitute informal training would include participating in meetings, coaching other people, attending conferences, searching the Internet for information, working with customers, job rotation, reading books and journals, playing video games, and watching TV.70 FIGURE 8-2 Some Popular The U.S. Department of Labor’s Registered Apprenticeship program offers access to more than Apprenticeships 1,000 occupations, such as the following: Source: From Available ­Occupations, www.doleta.gov/ Able seaman OA/occupations.cfm, accessed Carpenter March 4, 2018. This lists Chef ­apprenticeships by city and state. Child care development specialist Construction craft laborer Dental assistant Electrician Elevator constructor Fire medic Law enforcement agent Over-the-road truck driver Pipefitter 250    PART 3 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT Employers facilitate informal learning. For example, one Siemens plant places tools in cafeteria areas to take advantage of the work-related discussions taking place. Even installing whiteboards with markers can facilitate informal learning.71 Google supports on-site cafeterias, with free or subsidized food. Employees eat together, and through their interactions learn new ideas and build stronger relationships.72 Job Instruction Training Many jobs consist of a sequence of steps best learned step-by-step. Such step-by-step job instruction training (JIT) training is called job instruction training (JIT). First, list the job’s required steps Listing each job’s basic tasks, along (let’s say for using a mechanical paper cutter) each in its proper sequence. Then list a with key points, in order to provide corresponding “key point” (if any) beside each step. The steps in such a job instruc- step-by-step training for employees. tion training sheet show trainees what to do, and the key points show how it’s to be done—and why, as follows: Steps Key Points 1. Start motor None 2. Set cutting distance Carefully read scale—to prevent wrong-sized cut 3. Place paper on cutting table Make sure paper is even—to prevent uneven cut 4. Push paper up to cutter Make sure paper is tight—to prevent uneven cut 5. Grasp safety release with left hand Do not release left hand—to prevent hand from being caught in cutter 6. Grasp cutter release with right hand Do not release right hand—to prevent hand from being caught in cutter 7. Simultaneously pull cutter and safety Keep both hands on corresponding releases releases—avoid hands being on cutting table 8. Wait for cutter to retract Keep both hands on releases—to avoid having hands on cutting table 9. Retract paper Make sure cutter is retracted; keep both hands away from releases 10. Shut off motor None As another example, the “van exit” steps UPS teaches drivers include: Shift into the lowest gear or into park; turn off the ignition; apply the parking brake; release the seatbelt with left hand; open the door; place the key on your ring finger.73 Lectures Lecturing is a quick and simple way to present knowledge to large groups of trainees, as when the sales force needs to learn a new product’s features.74 Here are some guide- lines for presenting a lecture:75 Don’t start out on the wrong foot, for instance, with an irrelevant joke. Speak only about what you know well. Remember that clarity is king: make sure your audience is clear about what you’re saying. Give your listeners signals. For instance, if you have a list of items, start by saying something like, “There are four reasons why the sales reports are necessary.... The first....” Use anecdotes and stories to show rather than tell. Be alert to your audience. Watch body language for negative signals like fidget- ing or boredom. Maintain eye contact with the audience. Make sure everyone can hear. Repeat questions that you get from trainees. Leave hands hanging naturally at your sides. Talk from notes or PowerPoint slides, rather than from a script.  CHAPTER 8 Training and ­Developing Employees    251 Break a long talk into a series of short talks. Don’t give a short overview and then spend a 1-hour presentation going point by point through the material. Break the long talk into a series of 10-minute talks, each with its own introduc- tion. Write brief PowerPoint slides, and spend about a minute on each. Each introduction highlights what you’ll discuss, why it’s important to the audience members, and why they should listen to you.76 Practice. If possible, rehearse under conditions similar to those under which you will actually give your presentation. Programmed Learning programmed learning Whether the medium is a textbook, iPad, or the Internet, programmed learning is a A systematic method for teaching step-by-step, self-learning method that consists of three parts: job skills, involving presenting ques- tions or facts, allowing the person 1. Presenting questions, facts, or problems to the learner to respond, and giving the learner 2. Allowing the person to respond immediate feedback on the accuracy 3. Providing feedback on the accuracy of answers, with instructions on what of his or her answers. to do next Generally, programmed learning presents facts and follow-up questions frame by frame. What the next question is often depends on how the learner answers the previ- ous question. The built-in feedback from the answers provides reinforcement. Programmed learning reduces training time. It also facilitates learning by letting trainees learn at their own pace, get immediate feedback, and reduce their risk of error. Some argue that trainees do not learn much more from programmed learning than from a textbook. Yet studies generally support programmed learning’s effectiveness.77 In addition to the usual programmed learning, computerized intelligent tutoring sys- tems learn what questions and approaches worked and did not work for the learner, and then adjust the instructional sequence to the trainee’s unique needs. Behavior Modeling behavior modeling Behavior modeling involves (1) showing trainees the right (or “model”) way of A training technique in which train- doing something, (2) letting trainees practice that way, and then (3) giving feedback ees are first shown good manage- on the trainees’ performance. Behavior modeling is one of the most widely used, ment techniques in a film, are asked well-researched, and highly regarded psychologically based training interventions.78 The to play roles in a simulated situation, basic procedure is as follows: and are then given feedback and praise by their supervisor. 1. Modeling. First, trainees watch live or video examples showing models behaving effectively in a problem situation. Thus, the video might show a supervisor effec- tively disciplining a subordinate, if teaching “how to discipline” is the aim of the training program. 2. Role-playing. Next, the trainees get roles to play in a simulated situation; here they are to practice the effective behaviors demonstrated by the models. 3. Social reinforcement. The trainer provides reinforcement in the form of praise and constructive feedback. 4. Transfer of training. Finally, trainees are encouraged to apply their new skills when they are back on their jobs. Audiovisual-Based Training Although increasingly replaced by Web-based methods, audiovisual-based training techniques like DVDs, films, PowerPoint, and audiotapes are still used.79 The Ford Motor Company uses videos in its dealer training sessions to simulate problems and reactions to various customer complaints, for example. Vestibule Training With vestibule training, trainees learn on the actual or simulated equipment but are trained off the job (perhaps in a separate room or vestibule). Vestibule training is nec- essary when it’s too costly or dangerous to train employees on the job. Putting new assembly-line workers right to work could slow production, for instance, and when 252    PART 3 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT safety is a concern—as with pilots—simulated training may be the only practical alter- native. As an example, UPS uses a life-size learning lab to provide a 40-hour, 5-day realistic training program for driver candidates.80 Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSS) electronic performance Electronic performance support systems (EPSS) are computerized tools and dis- support systems (EPSS) plays that automate training, documentation, and phone support.81 When you call a Sets of computerized tools and Dell service rep, he or she is probably asking questions prompted by an EPSS; it takes displays that automate training, you both, step-by-step, through an analytical sequence. Without the EPSS, Dell would documentation, and phone support; have to train its service reps to memorize an unrealistically large number of solutions. integrate this automation into appli- Clients such as Oracle, HP, and L’Oréal use customized EPSS solutions from Whatfix cations; and provide support that’s faster, cheaper, and more effective (https://whatfix.com/reviews/).82 than traditional methods. Performance support systems are modern job aids. Job aids are sets of instruc- tions, diagrams, or similar methods available at the job site to guide the worker.83 Job job aid aids work particularly well on complex jobs that require multiple steps, or where it’s A set of instructions, diagrams, or dangerous to forget a step. For example, airline pilots use job aids (a checklist of things similar methods available at the job to do prior to takeoff). site to guide the worker. Videoconferencing Videoconferencing involves delivering programs over broadband lines, the Internet, or satellite. Vendors such as Cisco offer videoconference products such as Webex and TelePresence.84 Cisco’s Unified Video Conferencing (CUVC) product line combines Cisco group collaboration and decision-making software with videoconferencing, video telephony, and realistic “TelePresence” capabilities.85 Computer-Based Training Computer-based training (CBT) uses interactive computer-based systems to increase knowledge or skills. For example, employers use CBT to teach employees safe methods for avoiding falls. The system lets trainees replay the lessons and answer questions and is especially effective when paired with actual practice under a trainer.86 Computer-based training is increasingly realistic. For example, interactive multi- media training integrates text, video, graphics, photos, animation, and sound to cre- ate a complex training environment with which the trainee interacts.87 In training a physician, for instance, such systems let medical students take a hypothetical patient’s medical history, conduct an examination, and analyze lab tests. The students can then interpret the data and make a diagnosis. SIMULATED LEARNING AND GAMING “Simulated learning” means different things to different people. A survey asked training professionals what experiences qualified as simulated learning experiences. Answers included “virtual reality-type games,” “step-by-step animated guide,” “scenarios with questions and decision trees overlaying animation,” and “online role-play with photos and videos.”88 The U.S. Armed Forces use simulation-based training programs. For example, the army developed video game–type training programs called Full-Spectrum Command and Full-Spectrum Warrior for training troops in urban warfare. They offer realistic “you are there” features and cultivate real-time leadership and decision-making skills.89 Many employers use computerized simulations (sometimes called interactive learn- ing) to inject realism into their training. Orlando-based Environmental Tectonics Cor- poration created an Advanced Disaster Management simulation for emergency medical response trainees. One simulated scenario involves a plane crash. So realistic that it’s “unsettling,” trainees including firefighters and airport officials respond to the simu- lated crash’s sights and sounds via pointing devices and radios.90 The Cheesecake Fac- tory uses a simulation that shows employees how to build the “perfect hamburger.”91 Specialist multimedia companies such as Simulation Development Group (www.simstudios.com) produce programs like these. They produce custom titles as well as generic programs, for instance for leadership development.  CHAPTER 8 Training and ­Developing Employees    253 Virtual reality puts the trainee in an artificial three-dimensional envi- ronment that simulates events and situations experienced on the job. Egor Kotenko/123RF Virtual reality (VR) puts the trainee in an artificial three-dimensional environment that simulates events and situations experienced on the job.92 Sensory devices transmit how the trainee is responding to the computer, and the trainee “sees, feels, and hears” what is going on, assisted by special goggles and sensory devices.93 Several National Football League teams use VR to train their quarterbacks in going through plays, and thousands of students have taken virtual field trips via Google’s VR pioneer expedi- tions program.94 Facebook’s purchase of virtual reality glasses maker Oculus VR Inc. highlights virtual reality’s growing potential.95 Training games needn’t be complicated. For example, the trainers at Korea Gin- seng Corporation (a leader in health-foods) wrote games accessible through app inter- faces. Each round of each game is comprised of five multiple-choice quizzes. The more answers the employees get right and the quicker they give their answers, the more points they earn. The trainee/players compete against each other, with the top trainees profiled publicly with their names and pictures.96 Online/Internet-Based Training Most employers are moving from classroom-based to online-based learning because of the efficiencies involved. For example, until recently, Utah-based Clearlink’s employee training was classroom based. Sales agents often returned to the field without being tested on what they learned, and in general the training was less than effective. Clearlink switched to online learning. Its trainers turned from classroom training to creating new online e-learning courses and monitoring training results. The agents were relieved to be able to get their training on demand without interfering with their daily duties. The com- pany estimates it saved almost $800,000 in one recent year by digitizing its training.97 Employers use online learning to deliver almost all the types of training we’ve dis- cussed to this point. For example, China’s state-owned postal service, China Post, created a center to manage its online training college, which now delivers about 9,000 hours of training annually, offering over 600 programs.98 ADP trains new salespeople online, using a Blackboard learning management system similar to one used by college students.99 Learning management systems (LMS) are special software tools that support online training by helping employers identify training needs and to schedule, deliver, assess, and manage the online training itself. GM uses an LMS to help dealers deliver training. The LMS includes a course catalog, supervisor-approved self-enrollment, and pre- and postcourse tests.100 Other typical LMS features include a course library, 254    PART 3 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT quizzes, reports and dashboards (for monitoring training performance), gamification elements (such as points and badges), messaging and notification systems, and a facil- ity for scheduling and delivering both virtual and classroom training.101 Online learning doesn’t necessarily teach individuals faster or better.102 But, of course, the need to teach large numbers of students remotely, or to enable trainees to study at their leisure, often makes e-learning attractive.103 Some employers opt for blended learning. Here, trainees use multiple delivery methods (such as manuals, in-class lectures, and Web-based seminars or “webinars”) to learn the material.104 Thus, the tool manufacturer Stihl offers prospective tool and die makers online learning combined with hands-on technical training classes.105 We’ll look closer at some online learning elements. WLE K NO DG LEARNING PORTALS A learning portal offers employees online access to training courses. E Many employers arrange to have an online training vendor make its courses available BASE via the employer’s portal. Most often, the employer contracts with application service providers (ASPs). When employees go to their firm’s learning portal, they actually link to the menu of training courses that the ASP offers for the employer. Suppliers of learning portals include Pathgather (www.pathgather.com), and PwC’s L&D app.106 Skillsoft (www.skillsoft.com) offers access to thousands of cases, courses, webinars, and other education content. Grovo (www.grovo.com/content) offers short, micro learning content. Open Sesame (www.opensesame.com) combines and curates thousands of online courses from various sources, in Business Skills, Safety, Compli- ance, Technology, Industry, and Specific Certifications.107 Employers such as L’Oréal, Marks & Spencer, and AT&T help their employees enroll in moocs (massive open online courses), widely available through platforms such as Coursera and EDX. virtual classroom THE VIRTUAL CLASSROOM A virtual classroom uses collaboration software to enable Teaching method that uses special multiple remote learners, using their PCs, tablets, or laptops, to participate remotely in collaboration software to enable live audio and visual discussions, communicate via written text, and learn via content multiple remote learners, using such as PowerPoint slides. their PCs or laptops, to participate The virtual classroom combines the best of online learning offered by syst­ems in live audio and visual discussions, like Blackboard with live video and audio.108 Thus, Elluminate Live! lets learners communicate via written text, and learn via content such as PowerPoint view video, collaborate with colleagues, and learn with shared PowerPoint slides.109 slides. MOBILE AND MICRO LEARNING More and more learning and development is being “microsized” and delivered through mobile devices.110 Mobile learning (or “on-demand learning”) means delivering learning content on the learner’s demand, via mobile devices like smart phones, laptops, and tablets, wherever and whenever the learner has the time and desire to access it.111 For exam- ple, trainees can take full online courses using dominKnow’s (www.dominknow.com) iPhone-optimized Touch Learning Center Portal.112 Most large employers distribute internal communications and training via mobile devices.113 Employees at CompuCom Systems Inc. access instruction manuals through mobile devices; the company subsidizes employee purchases of smart phones or tab- lets to facilitate this. J. P. Morgan encourages employees to use instant messaging, for