Tourism Policy and Planning: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow (Third Edition) PDF

 Third edition TOURISM POLICY AND PLANNING The wellspring to the future global growth in tourism is a commitment toward good policy and strategic planning. Tourism Policy and...

 Third edition TOURISM POLICY AND PLANNING The wellspring to the future global growth in tourism is a commitment toward good policy and strategic planning. Tourism Policy and Planning: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow offers an introduction to the tourism policy process and how policies link to the strategic tourism planning function as well as influence planning at the local, national, and international level. This third edition has been fully revised and updated to reflect the many important developments in the travel and tourism industry and subsequent new policies and present planning process issues. The third edition features: A new chapter on policies regarding terrorism and its impact on tourism. New and updated content on managing sustainable tourism, obstacles and barriers to international travel, and strategic tourism planning. New case studies based on established and emerging markets throughout to illustrate real-life applications of planning and policy at the international, regional, national, and local level. New end of chapter summary and review questions to consolidate student learning. Accessible and up to date, Tourism Policy and Planning is essential reading for all tourism students. David L. Edgell, Sr. is a professor of trade, tourism, and economic development and a senior professor of graduate studies in sustainable tourism at East Carolina University. He has authored 11 books and over 100 articles, has served as U.S. Under Secretary of Commerce for Travel and Tourism, and was the first Commissioner of Tourism for the U.S. Virgin Islands. Jason R. Swanson is a professor of hospitality and tourism at the University of Kentucky and is the author of two books on tourism and many articles on tourism-related issues. Professor Swanson also teaches at international universities, conducts important research related to tourism policy and planning, and provides international consulting services.  Third edition TOURISM POLICY AND PLANNING Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow DAVID L. EDGELL, SR. and JASON R. SWANSON Third edition published 2019 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019 David L. Edgell, Sr. and Jason R. Swanson The right of David L. Edgell, Sr. and Jason R. Swanson to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. First edition published by Butterworth-Heinemann 2008 Second edition published by Routledge 2013 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Edgell, David L., Sr. (David Lee), 1938– editor. Title: Tourism policy and planning : yesterday, today, and tomorrow / David L. Edgell, Sr., Jason R. Swanson. Description: Third Edition. | New York : Routledge, 2018. | “Second edition published by Routledge 2013”—T.p. verso. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017060232 (print) | LCCN 2018005496 (ebook) | ISBN 9781351033541 (Master ebook) | ISBN 9781351033534 (Web PDF) | ISBN 9781351033527 ( ePUB) | ISBN 9781351033510 (Mobipocket) | ISBN 9781138491212 (Hardback : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781138491236 (Paperback : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781351033541 (eBook) Subjects: LCSH: Tourism—Planning. | Tourism—Government policy. Classification: LCC G155.A1 (ebook) | LCC G155.A1 T5924325 2018 (print) | DDC 338.4/791—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017060232 ISBN: 978-1-138-49121-2 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-49123-6 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-351-03354-1 (ebk) Typeset in Stone Serif by Apex CoVantage, LLC Visit the eResources: www.routledge.com/9781138491236  We have not inherited the earth from our ancestors, we have only borrowed it from our children. Anonymous We dedicate this book in honor of children, our future worldly travelers. Especially to: Nathan Lee Edgell, grandson of David L. Edgell, Sr. and Peter Shackleford Swanson, son of Jason R. Swanson Contents List of illustrations viii List of case studies x Preface xi Acknowledgements xv 1 Introduction 1 2 Tourism in yesterday’s world: ancient times to the present 25 3 Tourism policy issues for today: new directions 53 4 International tourism as a commercial and economic activity 81 5 Political and foreign policy implications of tourism 109 6 Managing sustainable tourism in the twenty-first century 137 7 Barriers and obstacles to international travel 163 8 Affecting and influencing tourism policy 189 9 The international tourism policy process 217 10 Strategic tourism planning as a part of the policy agenda 243 11 Transformative leadership in developing tourism policies 269 12 Policies regarding terrorism and its impact on tourism 291 13 Tourism policy issues for tomorrow 307 Index 324 vii  Illustrations FIGURES 1.1 The Hotel Nacional de Cuba is a historic building in Havana 3 1.2 Visitors enjoy the clean beach in Gulf Shores, Alabama 9 1.3 Tourism policy development process 15 1.4 Tree diagram: goal-oriented tourism planning 18 1.5 Glory Hole Falls at Big Cedar 19 2.1 An American tour group in Athens follows in the footprints of Herodotus31 2.2 The two westernmost islands of the Galapagos archipelago 39 2.3 Areas along the Tar River, once explored by John Lawson, are now a mix of undeveloped land and an urban park 45 3.1 The first commercial winery in the United States is now an agritourism attraction in Jessamine County, Kentucky, known as First Vineyard 56 3.2 The natural landscape and the built environment intersect in Guam 61 3.3 The Outer Banks serve as a barrier between the Atlantic Ocean and calmer inland waters 66 4.1 Schema of tourism as a commercial and economic activity 82 4.2 Trails lead to a large sandstone fin formation, known as the Organ, in the Arches National Park in the United States 83 4.3 Arenal Volcano in Costa Rica puffs and rumbles steadily for visitors 87 4.4 Venn diagram of government, business, and non-profit coopetition 98 4.5 Venn diagram of two small communities practicing coopetition 98 4.6 Satellite image of Chetumal Bay and Ambergris Caye 100 5.1 Components of democratic peace theory 114 5.2 The relationship of tourism and peace 116 5.3 Tallgrass prairie landscape near the Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve 127 5.4 Guided horseback riders tour in the Flint Hills area 128 5.5 Visitors experience historical architecture while hiking in the Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve 130 6.1 Big Cedar Lodge in Missouri (USA) integrates the built environment with the natural landscape 138 6.2 Boat traffic on the Nile River in Egypt often requires passengers to disembark by walking through other boats 141 6.3 Small beach development on the south side of the island 152 7.1 In Havana, a statue of José Martí holding a small child points defiantly at the United States Embassy building 166 7.2 Cruise passengers touring a scientific research station 173 viii  ILLUSTRATIONS 7.3 Estimated numbers of Antarctic tourists, 1965–2009 175 7.4 A Chinstrap penguin observes a cruise ship before its passengers land ashore 176 10.1 Banks Peninsula near Akaroa shows the purity of New Zealand 249 10.2 Tree diagram: goal-oriented tourism planning 252 10.3 Coastlines are critical in island communities such as the village of Armenistis on the Aegean Sea island of Ikaria 260 10.4 Tourists relax along the coastline of Lake Michigan in Chicago 261 11.1 Alaska provides beautiful landscape and interesting fauna in a vast expanse of rural areas 275 11.2 Tour bus in front of the Ministry of the Interior building – bearing the image of Che Guevara – on Revolution Square in Havana 281 11.3 View of Havana Port and Cruise Terminal from La Cabaña, a museum in a restored eighteenth-century fort 285 TABLES 1.1 Selected sectors of the tourism industry 3 7.1 Nations’ visa free access for its citizens 165 ix  Case studies 1 Big Cedar Lodge: the epitome of sustainable tourism development 19 2 John Lawson, exploring the New World 42 3 Changing impacts on tourism in the Outer Banks of North Carolina 65 4 Sustainable tourism and Ambergris Caye, Belize 99 5 Experiential tourism: the Flint Hills and the Kansas Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve 125 6 Dominica as a sustainable tourism destination and an ecotourism project on the Kalinago [Indian] Territory 150 7 Policy challenges of tourism as a commercial activity in Antarctica 172 8 The United States National Tourism Policy Act of 1981 204 9 The Hague Declaration on tourism 229 10 Sustainable tourism as a development strategy along coastlines 259 11 Cuban tourism at the crossroads of the modern era of sustainability 280 12 Travel, the language of peace and sustainability 297 13 Ten important world tourism issues for 2018 320 x Preface This third edition (2019) of Tourism Policy and Planning: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow provides faculty, students, professionals, local stakeholders and businesspersons with the philosophy, concepts, principles, practices, and management tools to fully understand the field of tourism policy and planning. The authors of this book have extensive expe- rience working with business people, national government employees, global tourism organization personnel, local community stakeholders, professors, and students through- out the world with respect to tourism policy and planning. The book is based on tourism policy and planning research, experience in teaching tourism policy and planning in the classroom, and best practices consulting work in the field of tourism policy and planning at the local, national and international levels. The new millennium is a period of intense and complex interactions involving tourism issues as factors influencing both international institutions and political practices regard- ing the quality of economic, social-cultural and environmental policy and planning. The co-authors of this book underscore this integrative viewpoint in this volume and feature similar and differing perspectives through references to the rich foundation of literature provided by an outstanding cadre of our travel and tourism scholar predecessors and con- temporaries. The research for the book is extensive and includes materials from colleagues, researchers, and recent new additions to the field of tourism policy and planning. By exploring the future of tourism in the context of tourism policy and planning yesterday, today, and tomorrow, we hope to offer current and future businesspersons, politicians, managers, students and academics insight into key international policies, trends, and issues. The volume is also intended to help prepare national tourism agen- cies and local destination management organizations information for developing policy and planning strategies in order to increase competitiveness and provide for sustainable resource management. International tourism organizations such as the United Nations World Tourism Organization, World Travel and Tourism Council, International Institute for Peace through Tourism, and regional organizations such as the Organization for Eco- nomic Co-operation and Development, Organization of American States, Asia-Pacific Economic Council, and the Caribbean Tourism Organization, local, state, provincial, and national policymakers, and the international academic community will now have a basic tourism policy and planning resource volume readily at hand. This book also takes into account the United Nations General Assembly declaration in 2016 that: “2017 is the United Nations International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development” with the following goals: 1 inclusive and sustainable economic growth 2 social inclusiveness, employment and poverty reduction xi  Preface 3 resource efficiency, environmental protection and climate change 4 cultural values, diversity and heritage 5 mutual understanding, peace and security. From a tourism policy and planning perspective, all of these goals are addressed in this volume in one form or another. In addition, the book gives a snapshot view of sustain- able tourism for development with an emphasis on ecotourism, geotourism, responsible tourism, and cultural tourism as seen through the eyes of four historic worldly travelers. A special chapter in this book looks at sustainable tourism development from a broad policy perspective as a global concern for the conservation of the natural and built envi- ronments. It emphasizes the need for individuals and organizations to be conscious of conserving the earth’s resources and in protecting the contributions made by the inhab- itants with respect to the world’s history, heritage, and culture. Taken together, the nat- ural environment and the history, heritage, and culture of the local community are the ingredients that contribute to our interest in managing sustainable tourism development. The key question for tourism policy and planning is how to best manage these resources sustainably for the next generation of travelers to enjoy and to ensure that the local citi- zens of the community benefit from tourism development. Additionally, we view our level of presentation of tourism policy and planning as appropriate for several specific uses. One use is as a text for a one-semester introduction to tourism policy and planning course for senior level undergraduate and graduate students in travel, tourism, hospitality management, event planning, public policy, and business administration. We believe our emphasis on conceptual foundations of policy and plan- ning also makes it attractive as a supplemental text for courses in graduate programs in political science, economics, and international relations. Many of the case studies in the book provide practical applications that include the use of positive approaches to tourism policy and planning for destinations throughout the world. Also, this book has many potential uses for tourism officials at the local, state, provincial, regional, and national levels. Finally, the book is helpful to the general public in understanding the importance and impact of tourism on national and international issues. The co-authors of this book have a great deal of experience in the field of tourism pol- icy and planning. The book frequently refers to the names of the co-authors because of their strong academic and practical background in all aspects of travel and tourism, but especially with respect to tourism policy, planning, marketing, sustainability and devel- opment. A short note of explanation about the authors is included. David L. Edgell, Sr. has a lifetime career of more than 40 years’ involvement at all levels, global, national and local, in tourism policy, planning and management. He has a Bachelor of Science in Business, a Bachelor of Arts in Economics, a Master of Arts in Public Administration, and a Doctor of Philosophy in International Management, with post graduate studies at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (econometrics), Har- vard University (executive leadership) and the University of Michigan (social sciences). Dr. Edgell had a distinguished tourism leadership and policy career in the U.S. govern- ment, serving at one point as the Acting Under Secretary of Commerce for Travel and Tourism, the highest level policy position in travel and tourism in the United States. xii  P REFACE He also held several executive positions in the U.S. Travel and Tourism Administration representing the U.S. government as head of delegation to the United Nations World Tourism Organization, the Caribbean Tourism Organization, and tourism committees of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, the Organization of American States, and the Asia-Pacific Economic Council. Dr. Edgell was also the Execu- tive Director for World Fairs and Expositions and led efforts to bring WorldCupUSA94 to the U.S. Later, he served in the capacity of first Commissioner of Tourism for the U.S. Virgin Islands during which he provided leadership, management and administration for tourism development, marketing, policy, planning, budgeting, legislative relations, and investment. He also worked in senior executive positions within private-sector compa- nies involved in travel and tourism and as a private consultant. Currently, Dr. Edgell is a professor of tourism, trade and economic development in the School of Hospitality Lead- ership within the College of Business at East Carolina University. He has written 11 books and over 100 articles on tourism, trade, and economic development, consulted on a wide variety of tourism projects, and is a frequent speaker at conferences. In 2014 he received the Association of Public and Land-Grant Universities (294 universities) and the Board of Human Sciences, Inc.’s Lifetime Achievement Award for his recognized leadership in the Human Sciences. Dr. Edgell received the Department of Commerce’s highest medal awards: Bronze, Silver, and Gold. He was the recipient of Mexico’s prestigious Miguel Aleman Silver Medal for international tourism leadership. Jason Swanson’s professional experience consists of hotel operations, market/feasibil- ity analysis, hospitality real estate advisory services, and tourism development. He has worked for consulting clients in the trade association, restaurant, hotel, spa, convention center, marina, golf course, and government sectors in over 50 markets throughout the United States, the Caribbean, and Asia. Jason has a Masters of Management from Cornell University’s School of Hotel Administration and a Ph.D. in Parks, Recreation and Tour- ism Management from North Carolina State University. Jason is an Associate Professor of Tourism at the University of Kentucky, where he teaches classes on tourism trends and tourism planning and is the Director of Undergraduate Studies for the Department of Retailing and Tourism Management. He has led or participated as faculty in student education abroad programs in France, Panama, Greece, and Cuba. Dr. Swanson is also an adjunct graduate faculty member at Assumption University in Bangkok, Thailand, leading an annual Ph.D. seminar in strategic tourism planning. He conducts research on community-based tourism development, tourism trade association management, and tourism policy advocacy. He was also a co-author, with Dr. Edgell, of the first and second editions of Tourism Policy and Planning: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow, which is now in its third edition. He was named to the inaugural class of Southeast Tourism Society’s Forty for the Future, recognizing tourism’s leading talent under the age of 40. He was also hired as an expert witness for tourism-related litigation associated with the 2010 oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico and is a consultant for destination management organizations and the National Tour Association. There are often references in this book to Tourism Policy and Planning: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow (second edition) by David L. Edgell, Sr., and Jason R. Swanson because it gives an overall view of sustainable tourism policy and planning. It also contains valuable xiii  Preface background information on important tourism issues not found elsewhere in the tourism research literature. In addition, reference is made to some information contained in the first edition (2006) and second edition (2016) of Managing Sustainable Tourism: A Legacy for the Future by David L. Edgell, Sr. It is not possible to write about global issues in the travel and tourism industry with- out mentioning the United Nations World Tourism Organization. This organization, along with the World Travel and Tourism Council are referenced frequently in this book. Another frequent reference in the book is to “peace through tourism.” It is absolutely clear that the opportunities for mobilizing the international community toward sus- tainable tourism development are dependent on a more peaceful world. The old adage “When Peace Prevails, Tourism Flourishes” has a strong truthful ring to it. In that respect, the book includes a segment on the International Institute for Peace through Tourism. xiv Acknowledgements The authors of this book are grateful for the many knowledgeable educators, businesspeo- ple, and friends in the travel and tourism industry who have freely given their time and counsel to us over many years. We wish to thank our publisher, Routledge, for having the confidence in our work both with respect to publishing this book and in publishing prior editions. We are also appreciative of the feedback from professors and students who have willingly taken the time to give us constructive comments about past editions of the book. This book would not have been possible without the help, encouragement, and advice of numerous individuals over a long period of years, too many to mention herein; and, our concern of possibly missing a special contribution from someone in the past who shared knowledge and wisdom about the tourism industry. However, with respect to this current edition of our book we especially want to thank Ms. Emma Travis, Senior Editor, Tourism, Ms. Cathy Hurren, Senior Production Editor, Geography, Tourism and Econom- ics, Ms. Carlotta Fanton, Editorial Assistant, Tourism, Hospitality and Events, of Rout- ledge, and Ms. Liz Dittner, copyeditor. We want to thank Mr. David Parker, formerly an executive in the travel and tourism industry, who was aware we were writing this book, and, who quietly collected contem- porary travel and tourism-related articles from many different sources beyond our reach and who, on a regular basis, mailed such documents to us. Also, we wish to thank Dr. Daniela Liggett, for preparing the case study on tourism activity in Antarctica which also appeared in an earlier edition of the book. We thank Mr. Christopher Alender for allowing us to use some of his special photos in the book. In addition, our thanks to Ms. Debbie Bennett, Mr. Jason Robinson and Ms. Sydney Dougherty of Big Cedar Lodge for making photos available to us, including the exceptional photo we utilized for the cover of this book. Last, but certainly not least, we wish to thank our families for their patience, encouragement, and support. xv 1 Introduction The end is not apparent from the very outset. —Herodotus, The Histories, 440 bce The quote introducing this chapter is certainly apropos with respect to the global tour- ism industry. The tourism stage in the first quarter of the twenty-first century presents profound challenges to all actors involved in tourism policy and planning within the tourism industry. Consumers of tourism in today’s world are demanding greater quality in their tourism products. Tourists want new and different destinations and more variety and flexibility in their travels. Increasingly, visitors are expressing a desire for a clean environment, nature tourism experiences, adventure travel activities, and tourism prod- ucts that include culture, heritage, and history. It has become necessary for businesses, governments, not-for-profit entities, academicians, and local tourism leaders to develop good policies and effective plans to meet the needs of the tourism industry.1 The aim of this chapter is to provide an introduction to the principles and practices of tourism policy and planning from a global perspective. Tourism – a set of dynamic and growing industries – involves not just people traveling, but also practical policies that give us future direction for our tourism programs and plans that help us to grow and protect the destinations and attractions to which people travel. Tourism is composed of private, public, and not-for-profit components interested in tourism development, new products, destination marketing, economic benefits, and future sustainability. These tour- ism interests have broad impacts on community life and need criteria and guidelines to help define and plan the future direction of the tourism industry, ultimately, providing quality tourism products and services. Tourism policy and planning should aim toward setting guidelines for the development of quality tourism products and for improving the quality of life of the local citizenry at any given destination. This book identifies some of the issues and concerns that tourism policy and planning should address in order to ensure a positive sustainable future for the tourism industry. This first chapter provides brief introductions to three central concepts – tourism, tourism policy, and tourism planning. Setting a foundation for these concepts adds to the read- ers’ understanding of subject matter covered throughout the book. The background and 1 CHAPTER 1 Introduction explanations in this chapter can also be a good reference point for students, professors and tourism professionals who are either new to the study of tourism-related public pol- icy or are looking for existent concepts in tourism policy and planning. Understanding tourism In this book, the term “tourism” is used synonymously with all aspects of travel and tourism, unless otherwise specified. It includes all aspects of the tourism industry, be they related to hospitality, food service, events, and other sectors that support the tourism industry. With respect to international tourism, this text uses the follow- ing definitions as recommended by the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO): Visitor: Any person visiting a country (or community) other than that in which the person usually resides, for any reason other than following an occupation remunerated from within the country visited. This definition covers two classes of visitors: tourist and excursionist. Tourist: A temporary visitor staying at least 24 hours in the country (or commu- nity) visited, the purpose of whose journey can be classified under one of the following headings: (a) leisure, recreation, holiday, health, study, religion, or sport; or (b) business, family, mission, or meeting. Excursionist: A temporary visitor staying less than 24 hours in the country (or community) visited (including travelers on cruises). Tourism: In terms of balance-of-trade accounting, tourism is defined as travel and transportation and is determined a business service export from the tourism recipient to the tourism generating economy. Tourism is an inherently complex field of inquiry. For example, the above definition yields guidelines useful for comparisons of international tourist arrivals and receipts but is not very helpful for measures of domestic tourism. Different countries use differing definitions for measuring domestic tourism. In the United States the general rule is that if you travel more than fifty miles from your home to a destination for purposes other than commuting to work, you are considered a visitor. The tourism industry is a multifaceted industry of many sometimes unrelated parts, resisting comparability within itself and with other industries. It is an industry that cuts across many different constituent components, as indicated in Table 1.1.2 The study of tourism also incorporates such human science topics as anthropology, archeology, geography, demography, economics, history, sociology, and natural philosophy. Selected sectors of the tourism industry include those listed in Table 1.1. The tourism industry is composed of businesses that provide various products, ser- vices, and facilities associated with tourist travel. Tourism is not a single industry but instead an amalgam of industry sectors – a demand force and supply market, a personal experience, and complicated international phenomenon. Tourism incorporates social, 2  Introduction CHAPTER 1 cultural, and environmental concerns beyond physical development and marketing. It encompasses both supply and demand, more than the sum of marketing and economic development. As the world’s most dynamic industry it demands a constant reassess- ment of its quality, variety, and sustainability. Because tourism is such a fast-growing Table 1.1 Selected sectors of the tourism industry B&B inns Theme parks Tour operators Vacation rental homes Entertainment venues Tour guides Hostels Gaming Specialized tours Restaurants Night clubs Native folklore Taverns and bars Music concerts Sports events Airlines Shopping Outdoor recreation Cruise ships Boating Hiking Trains Skiing Camping Buses Museums Fishing Taxis Historic buildings Hunting Automobile rentals Theaters Bird-watching Uber Spas, hair salons, etc. Whale watching Attractions Art galleries Convention centers Festivals Visitor bureaus Paddling trails Figure 1.1 The Hotel Nacional de Cuba is a historic building in Havana Photo: Jason Swanson 3 CHAPTER 1 Introduction industry, it must be mindful of potential issues and directions that could lead to disas- trous impacts on the industry. For this reason, it is necessary to understand its powerful impact on the natural and built environments in order that well-constructed poli- cies, plans, and management practices can be put in place to ensure its future quality growth. The popular textbook Tourism: Principles, Practices, Philosophies (12th edition, 2012) defines tourism as “the processes, activities, and outcomes arising from the rela- tionships and the interactions among tourists, tourism suppliers, host governments, host communities and surrounding environments that are involved in the attracting of visitors.”3 Tourism has strong links to cultural and social pursuits, foreign policy initiatives, eco- nomic development, environmental goals, and sustainable development planning. Tour- ism includes the buying, selling, and management of services and products (to tourists) that might range from buying hotel rooms to selling souvenirs or managing an airline. To accomplish these complex activities, tourism demands the most creative and innova- tive managers in that much of the tourism industry represents collections of perishable products. For example, if hotel rooms, airline seats, cruise-ship cabins, or restaurant tables are not filled daily and repeatedly, the point-of-sale moments to generate revenues from these products are gone forever. There is no opportunity to put such unsold products on sale at a later time, in storage, or in inventory. This perishability factor distinguishes tour- ism from consumer goods, such as automobiles, sunglasses, or sports equipment and puts additional pressure on hospitality and tourism managers when dealing with employees and customers. Tourism is also wide-ranging in the sense that it demands products from other sectors of the economy. For example, for the economy of many countries the major products may be agricultural or mineral-related product exports such as leaf tobacco, animal prod- ucts, cotton, lumber, minerals or grains to meet the demand of the world markets. These products may also be utilized in some form or another by the tourism industry. How- ever, tourism products are more often recognized in such business components as hotels, resorts, conventions, meetings, events, entertainment venues, attractions, amusement parks, shopping malls, music concerts, festivals, parks, restaurants, theaters, museums, history, heritage, culture, and nature sites and more, as noted in Table 1.1. The tourism industry is a large, complex and highly competitive sector of the economy at all levels: local, state/province, national, and international. The full scope of domestic and international tourism, therefore, encompasses the out- put of segments of many different industries. The travel industries consume the output of and create a far-reaching base of wealth for feeder industries such as agriculture, fishing, food processing, brewing, construction, airports, transportation vehicles, communica- tions equipment, and furniture, to name a few. In addition, tourist activities make use of the services of other industries, such as insurance, credit cards, advertising, database and niche marketing, the internet, social media, and e-commerce tools. In order to plan for and provide rational order to such a diverse and dynamic set of industries, it is necessary to develop policies and plans to assist decision-makers in the management of this com- plex phenomenon called tourism. 4  Introduction CHAPTER 1 Generally, the wealth of nations is measured almost entirely on the development and exportation of tangible goods (agriculture, livestock, mining and manufacturing), on the construction of infrastructure (highways and dams), and transportation (ocean vessels, railroads, airplanes, buses, automobiles, and other vehicles that transport people and assets from place to place throughout the world). In the twenty-first century many nations are deep into the “services revolution” that is changing the way we live and evaluate the world’s wealth and economy. An ever-expanding world of innovation has already provided us with smart phones, e-commerce tools, digital cameras, high defi- nition television, and satellite technology. In this bright new world of the twenty-first century we find that a major growth area in the service sector today is the travel and tourism industry. One of the fastest-growing industries in the contemporary world of economic growth is the travel, tourism, and hospitality industry. Demographic changes, increasing disposable income levels, heightened emphasis on sustainability, greater availability of leisure time, new communication tools and technology, higher levels of education, emerging tourism markets, growth in the supply of facilities and destinations, new marketing techniques, and other supplementary factors are having an impact on the demand for tourism. Tour- ism has become one of the most dynamic industries throughout the globe as it adapts to technological change, product innovations, and new markets. Tourism embraces technol- ogy in its widespread use of e-commerce tools, for its applications to new products such as space and undersea tourism, and in the development of new methods of marketing and promotion. Managing sustainable tourism in today’s world adds an important dimension to the growth of tourism. The policies set forth for tourism in an ever-changing world will direct the courses of action for tourism in the future. This book is an effort to meet this challenge and to provide policy and planning suggestions for the orderly sustainable growth and development of tourism. The opportunity offered by tourism for future economic, environmental, and social benefits will depend on understanding the tourism industry of yesterday, making the best possible decisions today and addressing forward-thinking trends for tomorrow. We can either define clear plans and policy guidelines for the future of the tourism industry or let it happen haphazardly and simply hope for the best. This book advocates that the tour- ism industry must define clear-cut policies and plans today before irrevocable mistakes are made that create a less than favorable industry in the future. This book also provides new information and concepts to help meet the challenge of charting a favorable course for tourism’s future. One area that has a particular major impact on international tourism has to do with the need for greater peace throughout the world. Peace and tourism have interesting con- ceptual ties. The old adage “When peace prevails, tourism flourishes” (author unknown) has a strong ring to it. In other words, the more peaceful the world, the greater the opportunity for tourism to grow.4 Traveling to foreign lands may lead to a greater under- standing of peoples from other countries that may help to create increased cooperation between visitors and hosts and ultimately lead to a more peaceful world. It is clear that international tourism exchanges can be hindered by the lack of peace at a destination. 5 CHAPTER 1 Introduction Thus, tourism can be seen as a generator and beneficiary of peace. Because tourism is so closely related to peace, more about peace and tourism is included in later chapters of this book. Importance of tourism in a global context The twenty-first century is seeing increases in leisure time and income for millions of people. Shorter working hours in some cases, greater individual prosperity, faster and cheaper travel relative to the past, more destinations to choose from, creative marketing, and the impact of advanced technology have all helped to make tourism one of the fast- est-growing economic sectors in the world. The significance of tourism as a viable source of income and employment, and as a major factor in the balance of payments for many countries, has been attracting increasing attention on the part of governments, regional and local authorities, and others with an interest in economic development. Further- more, sustainable tourism, concerns for the environment, social conditions, and other concepts have entered the decision-making process and will forever change the way tour- ism grows throughout the world. Global changes and sustainable tourism are discussed in some detail in Chapters 6 and 13. The latest research reports with respect to the growth of global travel and tourism over the past 50 years clearly demonstrate that it is growing much faster than the world econ- omy in general and that it is likely to continue to grow rapidly in the future. The travel and tourism industry is one of the largest contributors to the world economy and it will continue to dominate the job market for the foreseeable future. Both the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) and the UNWTO have been tracking tourism data over a long period of time, and with very few exceptions the trend of growth has been positive. With new and better data sources, and improved forecasting tools, it is now possible to prepare strategic tourism plans well into the future. According to research conducted for the WTTC by Oxford University’s Business School, domestic and international travel and tourism, taken together, reached $7.6 tril- lion in 2016, accounting for 10.2 percent of the world’s Gross Development Product and generating more than 292 million jobs (one in 10 of the world’s total jobs).5 The WTTC is a forum through which leaders of 100 of the world’s foremost travel and tourism compa- nies meet to discuss and formulate global travel and tourism policies and practices aimed toward the balanced economic growth and sustainability of a healthy tourism indus- try. In addition, UNWTO noted that international tourism arrivals in 2016 amounted to 1.235 billion.6 UNWTO is the United Nations agency charged with the promotion of responsible, sustainable, and universally accessible tourism policies worldwide, with a diverse stakeholder membership consisting of entities representing governments, pri- vate sector components, educational institutions, tourism associations, and local tour- ism authorities. The WTTC and UNWTO work cooperatively to lead and develop global responses to major tourism issues, including the need to protect world socioeconomic and environmental resources. 6  Introduction CHAPTER 1 Equally important is the fact that tourism, as an export, is of critical importance to both industrialized and developing nations. As an economic factor, tourism is growing faster than the rest of the world economy in terms of export, output, value added, capital investment, and employment. See Chapter 4 for a more complete discussion of the eco- nomics of tourism in an international context. While tourism has been growing rapidly since World War II, and will likely continue its dynamic growth into the future, this does not mean the sector will grow smoothly. As evidenced, there will be occasional structural, economic, political, environmental, social, and conceptual impediments in its path. An example of this was the severe decline in travel worldwide at the start of the Persian Gulf War in 1991. Mediterranean destina- tions, North America, and parts of Asia, far from the war zone and Middle East conflicts, were all affected. The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States had a detrimental effect on global tourism. The world economic recession of 2008–2009 also slowed down the growth of tourism. Coupled with this is the public’s, and, in some cases, governments’ inadequate understanding of the economic, environmental, and social importance of tourism and the low levels of access to current information about tourism affairs. At the same time, however, the global importance of tourism is becoming better understood because, in many geographic areas, tourism is replacing other industries that have traditionally been the paramount economic drivers. This, in turn, necessitates better tourism research, policy, and planning to support this momentum. As part of the overall growth of services, tourism is given greater recognition as an important sector in the global economy. Key multilateral governmental policy organiza- tions such as the United Nations (New York), the United Nations World Tourism Orga- nization (Madrid), the World Travel and Tourism Council (London),the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (Paris), the Organization of American States (Washington, D.C.), the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (Singapore), the Caribbean Tourism Organization (Barbados), and other international bodies are providing import- ant research reports and data for the tourism industry. One of their shared goals is to link tourism to other sectors of the international economy. The European Community, North America Free Trade Agreement, and other regional economic instruments are seeking to break down traditional barriers to providing and accessing tourism services across borders, which will ultimately aid international tourism. In addition, the WTTC, European Travel Commission (Brussels), the Pacific Asia Travel Association (Bangkok), and other groups mainly representing private interests, and some public concerns, are already establishing a higher level of cooperation and coalition-building to tackle broad policy issues. These changes indicate increasing recognition of the impact of tourism in the twenty-first century. Refer to Chapter 5 for more information on these intergovern- mental organizations. The importance of what has happened globally in the tourism policy arena since September 11, 2001 has been manifested by the movement of the world to better under- stand the necessary implementation of new safety and security measures. The prognosis for the future growth of tourism is good in spite of the adjustments most nations have had to make to the threat of terrorism. Chapter 12 addresses policies with respect to 7 CHAPTER 1 Introduction the impact of terrorism on the tourism industry. Chapter 13 highlights future tourism trends that need to be addressed within policy and planning. Economic changes taking place in China, India, United States, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Brazil, with more than 3.5 billion people (approaching nearly half the world’s population of more than 7.5 billion), will have major impacts on the global tourism markets of tomorrow. Currently the economies of China and India show good growth, with the United States not too far behind. Indonesia had a spurt of growth but currently has leveled off somewhat. Paki- stan continues to lag behind with slow economic growth and underdevelopment. The country of the big six that has tanked, and taken a downward economic spiral, is Brazil. Brazil is seeking to recover from a recession in 2015 and 2016 that ranks as the worst in the country’s history. Because the European region is the largest recipient of international tourists and also a substantial generator of out-going visitors, it is useful to take a glimpse at the European Union (which includes 28 member countries). Europe faces opportunities and challenges that cause the outlook for European economies to be mixed. The Euro- pean Union is still recovering from the 2008–2011 economic and debt crisis, although some of the countries are now in a growth mode. Greece continues to be plagued with economic problems that just won’t seem to disappear. A major question that arose in 2016 is the decision by the United Kingdom to leave the European Union. It is too early to determine the impact of that decision on the European economy and its impact on international tourism. Economic and non-economic benefits Tourism is an economic activity that provides local destinations, states, provinces, and countries with new sources of income and currency exchange. The impact tourism has on the economy can be tremendous as it creates jobs, reduces unemployment, fosters entre- preneurship, stimulates production of food and local handicrafts, demands effective com- munications, facilitates cultural exchanges, and contributes to a better understanding of the local area, state, province, country, and the world at large. Some of these concepts are discussed in Chapter 4 and others in later chapters. A problem area in many countries is that government leaders, legislators and admin- istrators lack an in-depth understanding of tourism. However, tourism in many coun- tries and communities is increasing in political and economic importance and the positive economic impact of tourism is the best argument presented by tourism profes- sionals to their policymakers when looking for increased funding and recognition. Log- ical and documented research on tourism’s economic impact can help to lead to better public policy decisions. Youth sports tourism is an example of an emerging market, the development of which can be enhanced with better information. Research shows the value of the economic impact of sports tourism is tied to destination managers using the findings from economic impact research to garner support from the host commu- nity for youth sports.7 8  Introduction CHAPTER 1 Destination managers’ decisions often focus primarily on the economic benefits of tourism, but destinations are (and should be) increasingly expanding their analysis to include non-economic measures such as social, cultural, environmental, and other con- cerns. As laid out in previous decades, but still applicable to today, tourism development should be in harmony with the socio-cultural, ecological, and heritage goals, values, and aspirations of the host community.8 It is important to consider all these concerns, not just economic gain, to assure a greater chance of increased participation from all stakeholders. For example, tourism adds many opportunities for members of the host community in the form of participation in cultural and historical attractions and events. Local artisans and tourism employees also reap the direct benefits of visitor expenditures beyond eco- nomic development, including increased pride in the local heritage, enhanced self-worth, or global recognition through bringing the world and other cultures to the destination’s doorstep. Furthermore, market demand is now forcing communities to consider these Figure 1.2 Visitors enjoy the clean beach in Gulf Shores, Alabama Photo: Jason Swanson 9 CHAPTER 1 Introduction other impacts as a means to stay competitive. An important example is found in coastal communities, as clean beaches and a certain amount of tranquility are sought by many visitors who are willing to pay for beach quality. Economic and non-economic costs While positive economic impacts are often more important to developers and govern- ments than some of the non-economic issues, tourism managers must recognize the right balance of economic and social, environmental and cultural concerns when formulating overall tourism policy and strategic planning objectives. The United States, as an example, provides two powerful cases, not too dissimilar to what is happening in other countries. First, new tourism development in local communities (and especially in regions known as gateway or entrance communities to major tourism destinations such as national parks and man-made attractions) may drive up real estate values, making the cost of housing prohibitive to community residents and the labor market servicing the needs of visitors. A second scenario deals with environmental use, or overuse, such as the recent debates regarding the permissibility of winter snowmobiling in Yellowstone National Park in the United States. To resolve the conflict of snowmobilers wanting complete access to Yel- lowstone National Park and environmentalists who noted the negative pollution impact of snowmobilers on the park, a policy was designed that both groups agreed to and that is to continue to allow snowmobilers, but with a limited set number allowed each day. Another example is Majorca, Spain, which was heavily impacted by mass tourism in the 1980s, 1990s, and into the new millennium. The local community, over the past few years, has come together to develop new policies and plans to mitigate the negative aspects of too much tourism in areas where the carrying capacity is overwhelmed. The policy has not been totally successful, but it has mitigated some of the negative impact of too many tourists overwhelming high-impact tourism areas during certain seasons of the year. It is a good example for other communities that have heavy tourism during certain parts of the year and need to make adjustments to handle the increased flow of tourists. More research and better solutions are needed regarding the negative social, economic, and environmental impacts on tourism. This will be increasingly important as tourism becomes more widespread throughout the world. Knowing benefits-to-costs ratios enables tourism organizations to invest in attracting and developing the appropriate and optimal market segments and tourism facilities. Policy should address these issues in a proactive way to achieve an optimum return for all tourism investments and assets. An inadequate capability by destination managers to address negative impacts on their attractions can lead to degradation of the tourism destination and a detrimental reputation, hampering both travelers and outside marketing agents. Affecting and influencing tourism policy based on research and policy analysis is explored in detail in Chapter 8. While the tourism industry has conducted considerable research with regards to mar- keting issues, economic questions, and the sustainability of tourism, many important areas have been mostly neglected. For example, there is very little research on psychologi- cal issues with respect to the tourism industry. An insightful article in the September 2005 10  Introduction CHAPTER 1 issue of American Psychologist highlighted the need and opportunity for more psycholog- ical research on tourism. The article concludes: Natural laboratories for the investigation of stress and coping, culture learning, and social identification are found in tourist settings in which tourists’ experiences, tour- ist-host impressions and encounters, and changes in host communities are all novel topics for psychological inquiry. The application of psychological theories for pro- moting positive results for individuals, communities, and the tourist industry more broadly presents groundbreaking opportunities for health, social, community, and applied psychologists. It also promises innovative outcomes for tourism researchers and contributes to tourism that is both sustainable and beneficial to the people it affects most.9 Another very recent example that is of particular concern for local governments is that sometimes there is too much tourism in certain local areas, whereby the tourists almost control the built environment. In 2015, in the international edition of the New York Times it was noted that the country of Denmark became concerned that tourists were, in effect, changing the social and physical environment in some areas. Among other concerns the article said that “the Danish philosophy toward tourists: They should blend in with the Danish way of life, not the other way around. The Danes have prohibited foreigners from buying vacation cottages on their seacoasts [and] devised bicycle-friendly transportation systems to include tourists.”10 Understanding tourism policy For tourism to be sustainable in the future, it is vital that effective policy and planning take place today. Policymakers, planning officials, and stakeholders must identify the emerging trends in tourism and orchestrate new measures that lead to orderly growth and quality products that benefit tourists and communities. Unfortunately, in the past, many governments have not given the tourism industry the same level of attention provided to manufacturing or even other service industries. However, news of conflicts, terrorism, health concerns, natural disasters, and weather conditions in countries throughout the world often bring the tourism industry to the forefront. The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) epidemic, concerns about avian influenza, the crisis with the Ebola outbreak, and the recent issue with respect to the mosquito-borne Zika virus, have taken their toll on tourism along with earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis, and other natural disasters. Other issues with respect to petroleum spills in the oceans and the poaching of animals have increased. The volatility of petroleum prices, the ups and downs in the world economy, and adjustments to new technologies are all affecting tourism in unprec- edented ways. This book discusses a few of these changes, concerns, and issues as they relate to public policy, and, in some cases, suggests remedies. In addition to providing workable definitions of tourism policy, this section also presents new challenges and approaches to tourism policy. 11 CHAPTER 1 Introduction A simple dictionary definition of policy is “A definite course or method of action selected from among alternatives and in light of given conditions to guide and determine present and future decisions.”11 The popular textbook Tourism: Principles, Practices, Philos- ophies defines tourism policy as: a set of regulations, rules, guidelines, directives, and development/promotion objec- tives and strategies that provide a framework within which the collective and indi- vidual decisions directly affecting long-term tourism development and the daily activities within a destination are taken.12 Another useful discussion of tourism policy is contained in a book titled Travel and Tourism: An Industry Primer, which adds important social aspects to the definition of tour- ism policy by stating: A tourism policy defines the direction or course of action that a particular country, region, locality, or an individual destination plans to take when developing or pro- moting tourism. The key principle for any tourism policy is that it should ensure that the nation (region or locality) would benefit to the maximum extent possible from the economic and social contributions of tourism. The ultimate objective of tourism policy is to improve the progress of the nation (region or locality) and the lives of its citizens.13 Perhaps the best approach to an initial understanding of tourism policy may also be the simplest, beginning with Thomas Dye’s classic definition of public policy, which is “whatever governments choose to do or not to do,” and applying it to tourism.14 In essence, tourism policy is any government act – legislative, administrative, or judicial – that affects tourism. For purposes of the approach taken in this book, tourism policy will be more broadly defined to include marketing, planning, and sustainability. In this context, tourism policy is a progressive course of actions, guidelines, directives, principles, and procedures set in an ethical framework that is issues-focused and best represents the intent of a community (or nation) to effectively meet its planning, development, product, service, marketing, and sustainability goals and objectives for the future growth of tourism. The definition acknowledges the important role that marketing, product development, and hospitality services play in tourism policy. In addition, the tourism sustainability concept must support the long-term goals related to economic, environmental, and social development. More importantly, this definition recognizes that tourism policy must be dynamic and flexible enough to allow adjustments and refinements as occasions arise. Tourism policy plays an important role in many societies. Tourism policy has the potential to engage and change the economic, political, social, and ecological dimensions of future lifestyles. In 1990 Edgell15 noted that: The highest purpose of tourism policy is to integrate the economic, political, cultural, intellectual and economic benefits of tourism cohesively with people, destinations, and countries in order to improve the global quality-of-life and provide a foundation 12  Introduction CHAPTER 1 for peace and prosperity. The political aspects of tourism are interwoven with its eco- nomic consequences. Tourism is not only a continuation of politics but an integral part of the world’s political economy. In short, tourism is, or can be, a tool used not only for economic but for political means. In the mid-1990s, Fayos-Sola16 suggested a more balanced role in tourism policymaking between the private, public, and voluntary sectors. He stated: The changing nature of the tourism industry with its move away from mass tourism towards greater market segmentation, use of new technologies, differentiation of the product, and adoption of new management styles demands a change in the sub- stance of governments’ tourism policies. At the end of the 1990s, Edgell17 further stated that: The tourism industry will be faced with some difficult challenges over the next sev- eral years. Technology, whether in communications information, new aerospace developments, or other fields, will heavily impact the tourism industry. The industry will need to develop effective policies and plans to deal with terrorism and other disruptions to the tourism market. Goeldner and Brent Ritchie18 noted in 2012 that: “Tourism policy seeks to ensure that visitors are hosted in a way that maximizes the benefits to stakeholders while minimizing the negative effects, costs, and impacts associated with ensuring the success of the destina- tion.” This positive outlook, set forth by Goeldner and Brent Ritchie, is how tourism policy should be, but not necessarily how tourism policy is actually implemented by most govern- ments. The above definitions offer ideas and options for a community or nation to develop its own best policies that apply to its specific tourism needs. The tourism industry is so dynamic that whatever policy is developed, it must be flexible enough to meet the current and anticipated needs of the specific destination or governmental program. New challenges related to creating and implementing tourism policy are presented in the next section. New challenges As many places in the world become better known and increasingly accessible, many governments will seek to encourage greater travel to their respective destinations. Many of the developed and developing countries operate their national tourism offices under the aegis of a government tourism policy that includes research, strategic planning, marketing, coordination, development, and training. Often this process is conducted in conjunction with associations of private-sector tourism interests, joint public–private consultative bodies, and international and intergovernmental organizations. If properly coordinated with all the stakeholders being involved, the opportunities for success are greatly improved. 13 CHAPTER 1 Introduction Tourism policymakers’ ability to fashion policies and plans in the future will depend upon solid research to better understand and accept new concepts as they appear. Such research may result in innovative and creative approaches that differ from traditional guidelines for policy once held as best practices by tourism managers and scholars. The policies must be flexible and resilient enough to foster the development of new tourism products and services in a rapidly changing world. A static policy that is firmly in place can be rendered useless whenever tragic events or new global disturbances erupt, as has been the case in recent years. The broad range of economic, political, environmental, and social implications for tourism on both the domestic and international fronts is yet to be fully realized. One way to focus attention on this need for recognition is to examine the larger role that tourism plays beyond its marketing and promotional goals. Sound tourism policy goes well beyond the marketing and promotion objectives to consider and evaluate tourism’s comprehensive effect on the host community. The changing dimensions of tourism as it expands have introduced the need for a sharper focus when dissecting the economic, cultural, ecological, environmental, social, and political consequences of tourism. With a thorough understanding of tourism’s implications, policymakers, planners, and business people can better facilitate community involvement in tourism develop- ment at all levels. The more vested the local community is in the decision-making pro- cess, the more likely the future of tourism will create economic, environmental, and social improvements to the quality-of-life of the local citizenry and lead to sustainability of the area. Chapter 3 highlights several of the key tourism policy issues of today that tourism managers and policymakers must understand in many destinations throughout the world. A new look at tourism policy Since tourism policy is difficult to define clearly, because of the involvement of many dif- ferent economic sectors and stakeholders, it tends to foster several major policy develop- ment challenges. Fundamentally, tourism policy should present a set of guidelines which, when combined with planning goals, charts a course of action for sound decision-mak- ing. For the past decade, leading tourism thinkers have called for increased attention to the social science aspects of tourism in an effort to continue to improve quality-of-life and promote global peace through tourism policy. Public policy is both a process and a product – the decision-making process and the product of that process. Policy should serve not only the government, but also the public interest. Policy, when properly applied, is a vehicle for a government to direct and stimu- late the tourism industry, as for example through tax legislation and sponsoring tourism research. The actions not only of government, but also of the public, private, and non- profit sectors are influenced by policy and play an important role in policy determination. One way to begin the tourism policy process is to research a tourism policy issue, such as a local hotel bed tax, and take the analysis through several of the steps outlined in Figure 1.3. Once resources, conditional factors such as the political environment and 14  Introduction CHAPTER 1 sustainability, and goals and objectives are understood through research, then the policy can be formulated and implemented. The final stage in the policy process is evaluation, which involves more research. The importance of research as the foundation for visionary policies is being recognized as essential by local, provincial/state, regional, and national tourism planners as they prepare for the future development of tourism. It can be argued that, in the past, the bulk of tourism policy and subsequent tourism policy research has focused on the demand side of the equation or on economic and marketing issues, which leads to underestimating other important considerations that Figure 1.3 Tourism policy development process19 15 CHAPTER 1 Introduction must be viewed within the supply side of tourism. Marketing a destination is sometimes complicated by the difficult supply characteristics of the industry. Thus, a tourism policy must relate to the proper balance of supply and demand within the tourism industry. Opponents of tourism often cite the negative impacts that an influx of visitors might have on the destination. There is definitely a need to have a policy that recognizes these concerns. Positive impacts of tourism are equally important to policymakers and tourism professionals. Understanding both positive and negative impacts will lead to practical sustainable tourism development. When the negative impacts on the environment are recognized, corrected, and managed well, and the positive attributes are built upon, the results can be presented to stakeholders, and thus tourism can become an important driv- ing force in community development. The benefits derived from visitor spending have an impact on the economy in numerous ways including generating income, creating jobs, spawning new businesses, spurring economic development, promoting economic diversi- fication, developing new products, and contributing to economic integration. Tourism encompasses specialties within industry segments, not often realized as tour- ism demand generators by policymakers or tourism outsiders. Tourism consumers may be classified as business travelers, leisure travelers, air and auto travelers, solo travelers, or travelers with children. They engage in travel that includes social/family events, or have many other travel motivations.20 Travelers to national parks, minority travelers, multi-generational travelers, and other niche demand groups look for specific environ- ments and tourism supply components when planning their travels. For example, her- itage tourism fulfills a specialized demand and supply. These activities are important to realize in many areas of the world where tourism is being developed to offset the decline of manufacturing industries, mining, and agriculture. A fully comprehensive tourism pol- icy will encompass all aspects of supply and demand that can be associated with tourism. For the wellbeing of a destination’s citizenry in terms of economic, political, environ- mental, social, and cultural issues, the public sector plays an active role in the develop- ment, legislation, financing, and planning of tourism. Because of fragmentation inherent among tourism stakeholders, the government must do more than just set policy – it must also assist in the implementation of policy. One method to accomplish this is by offering incentives to reach the established objectives. Historically, coordination related to tourism policy and programs within governments among different departments within European nations, the United States, and most other countries, has been poor. Consequently, tourism has received a low priority and has often been overlooked when governments distribute limited resources or when comprehensive policies are developed. A coordinated approach with a full and complementary partner- ship in tandem with public-sector and private-sector organizations will go a long way towards alleviating some of these past problems. Policy issues should be extended beyond those traditionally thought of as tourism, to be inclusive of all public programs concerned with tourism, not just what is typically perceived as tourism products. For instance, water management issues usually concern local businesses and residents. However, water parks, large golf resorts, and other tourism infrastructure can consume vast quantities of water. Therefore, waterworks departments will want to consider both the tourism industry and the local residents when developing 16  Introduction CHAPTER 1 policy. This will be crucial for tourism’s long-term success in a community. There must be recognition of the need to give the tourists the experience they want as well as to extend the sustainability of the experience. Resources should be earmarked to promote tourism while at the same time care is given to protect and enhance the sustainability of the destination. Cooperation and integration Stakeholder participation, when developing tourism policy, is important because of the diversity of organizations and interests in both public and private sectors. Stakeholders can include local citizens, business owners, public regulatory and land-use departments, public, private, and non-profit organizations – any and all constituencies involved or who ought to be involved in the decision-making process. Another important stakeholder is the destination’s visitors. In the past, tourism and economic development projects and processes overlooked the important role of a wide range of stakeholders. Some recent research on coopetition (discussed in Chapter 4) is lending additional support for greater cooperation in tourism decision-making at all levels. The many organizations involved in promoting tourism and their different objectives make tourism policy difficult to coor- dinate and implement; therefore, it is important to have an integrated policy. Without a comprehensive tourism policy, tourism’s economic, political, and legal implications often have unguided results, which may not lead to high-quality tourism development. Understanding tourism planning Tourism policy assembles the planning function and political goals for tourism into a set of guidelines to give the tourism community direction as it moves ahead. Without such guidance we might find tourism’s future considerably less beneficial than the plans that have been laid out. With the information and precepts presented in this book, students, professors, professionals, and policymakers will have a set of conceptual tools for under- standing the myriad factors that make up tourism planning and help foster the industry’s future growth in positive ways. Chapter 10 illustrates the important concepts of strategic tourism development planning. This book, with some divergences, utilizes the classic tourism-planning model that includes a vision and mission statement. The vision should be a few words that describe where local or national tourism strategy wants to be, while the mission statement explains how to get there. The vision and mission statement are followed by a set of goals, objec- tives, strategies, and tactics, sometimes represented in the form of a tree diagram, as shown in Figure 1.4. Tourism for local communities is a vital economic development tool, the economic benefits of which bear repeating (and will be repeated again later in this book): generat- ing income, creating jobs, spawning new businesses, spurring economic development, promoting economic diversification, developing new products, and contributing to economic integration. If local and national governments are committed to broad-based 17 CHAPTER 1 Introduction Figure 1.4 Tree diagram: goal-oriented tourism planning21 tourism policies, tourism will provide its citizens with a higher quality of life while it generates sustained economic, environmental, and social benefits. A look at travel and tourism within this context mandates that policymakers must understand the need for developing wide-ranging strategies and long-term plans, adjusted as conditions fluctuate or mature. Policymakers and planners, as well as local stakehold- ers, must be knowledgeable about market trends, and flexible enough to adjust strategic plans in the face of rapidly changing market forces. Tourism planning within the new tourism horizon must fully encompass the complex nature of tourism and the far-reach- ing mechanics of its implementation. Tourism policy and planning will drive the appropriate management techniques and tools essential for meeting emerging trends. This transformation must take place in a new world of globalization and competition, in which, at the same time, the world’s population and economies are changing. New technology (particularly in communica- tions and transportation), barriers to travel (described in more detail in Chapter 7), polit- ical relations, and many other factors will impact tourism policy and planning in the future. The need to enhance the understanding and visibility of tourism being a wide and multi-sectoral phenomenon, requires strong cooperation with myriad organizations, public administrations, communities, stakeholders, and the academic world. The remain- ing chapters in this book seek to increase the understanding of tourism, tourism policy, and tourism planning in all its myriad details and within a changing world. Even Chapter 2, with its focus on the past, will reveal information useful for understanding the present and future. The case study for this chapter, “Big Cedar Lodge: the epitome of sustainable tour- ism development,” illustrates an example of good sustainable tourism policy principles and solid strategic planning practices. This case study, originally a showcase of sustain- ability, first appeared in the book Managing Sustainable Tourism: A Legacy for the Future (Edgell, 2006). New updates to the original case study have been added that reinforce the ability of a destination to add additional product but, at the same time maintain quality growth. 18  Introduction CHAPTER 1 CASE STUDY 1 BIG CEDAR LODGE: THE EPITOME OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT To us Sundance is and always will be a dream. What you see, smell, taste and feel here is a dream being carefully nurtured. It is an area whose pledge is to people. What we offer in the form of art and culture, spirit and service, is homegrown and available to all. —Robert Redford This case study is based on prior research,22 personal visits, and interactions with local community individuals by David L. Edgell, Sr. at the Sundance Mountain Resort and at Big Cedar Lodge. It takes into account observations and interpretations by the author about what he has learned about these two excellent examples of sustainable tourism destinations. By the time of my (Edgell) visit to the Sundance Mountain Resort in Sundance, Utah, during the 1980s, I was already engaged in research about “sustainable tour- ism” destinations in rural areas. The Sundance Mountain Resort depicted the serenity of nature in all its splendor and highlighted the culture and spirit of the local popu- lation. Before visiting Sundance, I was well aware of actor Robert Redford’s interest in nature, history, heritage, and culture in general, and especially with respect to the area where the Sundance Mountain Resort is located. What was new to me was his interest in utilizing his newly acquired land as an ideal locale for environmental pres- ervation and artistic experimentation through the non-profit Sundance Institute and the Sundance Film Festival at the Sundance Mountain Resort. Mr. Redford, as a conser- vationist and preservationist, had developed his spectacularly beautiful 5,000-acre Figure 1.5 Glory Hole Falls at Big Cedar Photo: Big Cedar Lodge 19 CHAPTER 1 Introduction Sundance Mountain Resort into a showcase that balances art, nature and community. While Mr. Redford could live anywhere that he chose in the world, it is not surprising that he chose to build his home on Sundance Mountain. How could there be a more beautiful “sustainable tourism” developed resort than the Sundance Mountain Resort? In the 1990s, near the small rural village of Ridgedale, Missouri (population, 1,013), I visited an equally beautiful sustainable tourism devel- opment resort called Big Cedar Lodge. John Morris, owner of Big Cedar Lodge (also the founder and CEO of “Bass Pro Shops”), like Robert Redford, is a strong advo- cate of sustainability of wildlife and a promoter of the conservation of rural areas. His vision for Big Cedar Lodge, since the very beginning of its development, was to design a wilderness site that offered an authentic rustic outdoor set of activities for its guests. The lodges and cabins at Big Cedar Lodge are located in the heart of the Ozark Mountain Country, a region distinctively characterized by rugged remoteness, natural beauty, diverse features, and rich history. The resort respects the sanctity of nature and fosters most of the concepts of sustainable tourism development and management presented in this book. Big Cedar Lodge looms over a body of water, Table Rock Lake, with its 43,000 acres of clear blue-green expanses, yet surrenders to neighboring woods. The lodges and cabins are a tribute to man’s ability to blend built structures, with a strong presence of their own, into a natural rural setting.23 The Ozark Mountain Country area is rich in Native American heritage and culture, both ancient and more recent. In the 1800s the Ozarks were the hunting grounds of the Osage Indians. Before the influx of white trappers and explorers, the Osage Indi- ans lived in harmony with the natural habitat of the area, which had, and continues to have, an abundance of flora and fauna. Fortunately, the present owner of the Big Cedar Lodge, John Morris, knows and understands the importance of the history of the area and, in addition, is a conservationist who also advocates sustainable tourism development. The guiding philosophy behind the continuous development (in 2016 a beautiful “infinity pool” with a magnificent view of Table Rock Lake and the surrounding wood area was added) of Big Cedar Lodge is the idea that the principal asset of the project is its wilderness setting. It is important that the natural habitat, which is an integral part of Big Cedar Lodge, should not be a victim of over-development of the area, but rather a beneficiary. In this regard, the preservation of plants and wildlife is of pri- mary concern. Every effort, with respect to the Lodge site, has been made to accom- modate animals relocated from cleared areas. In addition, the utilities are located underground, the integrity of natural waterways is maintained, new plant life is intro- duced appropriately, and the buildings are designed to respect the environment and cultural heritage of the existing community. The question is how did Big Cedar Lodge become the impressive resort it is today? From a historical perspective, in the early 1920s, two wealthy Missouri friends – Julian “Jude” Simmons, a manufacturing and real estate entrepreneur, and 20  Introduction CHAPTER 1 Harry L. Worman, a retired president of the St. Louis to San Francisco (Frisco) Railroad – decided to build for themselves backcountry resort homes in the Ozarks. Together, they bought 300 acres of oak forest and cedar glade along the Long Creek Branch of the White River in Big Cedar Hollow, now the site of Big Cedar Lodge. Jude Simmons built his log mansion in Big Cedar Hollow as a sportsman’s vacation retreat, patterning it after the grand wilderness architecture that the northeastern elite favored for their Adirondack resorts. Harry Worman built a Tudor-style stone and stucco home, caretak- er’s cottage, and garage overlooking the scenic Big Cedar Valley. When Worman was in his mid-60s, he married an 18-year-old beauty, Dorothy, from Springfield, Missouri. As a wedding gift to his religious wife he added a small chapel with stained glass win- dows to their house.24 A real estate man and hotel operator, Dan Norris, purchased the Big Cedar Hol- low tract of land in 1947. His background in the hospitality industry led to his idea to develop the property into a place for visitors. Norris added a hotel lodge and a swim- ming pool on the property, and, with 25 horses, opened a resort he called Devil’s Pool Guest Ranch. The White River was dammed in 1954 to form a sprawling 43,000-acre reservoir called Table Rock Lake whose clear waters now serve as Big Cedar Lodge’s natural boundary. When “Bass Pro Shops” bought the property in 1987, founder John L. Morris, a person with interest in the history and heritage of the area, proceeded with care, to restore the Worman and Simmons buildings to their original magnificence. He also renovated the lodges in authentic rustic Adirondack tradition. As an active and dedi- cated conservationist, Mr. Morris rejuvenated the natural beauty of Big Cedar Hollow. The Big Cedar Lodge site was augmented in 1990 when Morris purchased 2,230 acres to expand the natural environmental area. Shortly thereafter he also increased his holdings in the vicinity by purchasing 10,000 acres of unimproved land and can- yon within about 20 minutes from Big Cedar Lodge. Morris’s idea was to “promote and protect the natural environment of the canyon’s wildlife and plant life.” He brought back to the site animals that had disappeared from the area but had once roamed throughout the canyon, such as buffalo and elk. The tract of land was named Dogwood Canyon Nature Park, and thanks to John Morris’s generous contribution, the Park is now owned and managed by the Dogwood Canyon Foundation, a non-profit organiza- tion dedicated to protecting the canyon’s natural plant and wildlife environment. The Foundation promotes environmental conservation by maintaining the park in pristine condition and providing the public with an unspoiled expanse of bowed ridges and deep hollows covered in oak pine and cedar ready for exploration and enjoyment by visitors. The sheer limestone bluffs are honeycombed with numerous caves. Archeol- ogists have unearthed Indian burials, artifacts and ancient cliff-dwelling remains that are fully protected. In 1997, Big Cedar Lodge added a “naturalist” Top of the Rock golf course. The golf course, like Big Cedar Lodge and Dogwood Canyon Nature Park, was built to 21 CHAPTER 1 Introduction emphasize the wilderness splendor, preserving the natural beauty of the area. It is the first Jack Nicklaus signature par 3 nine-hole course ever built, and because of its commitment to the environment and the original inhabitants, has been recognized as a Certified Audubon International Signature Sanctuary, making it one of only a very few courses in the world with that distinction.25 Today, Big Cedar Lodge is a model of what can be accomplished successfully and profitably if the principles of good sustainable tourism policies and planning are adhered to. Visitors want to visit the lodge’s pleasant natural surroundings, enjoy its many outdoor activities, learn about its rich heritage and history, and marvel at the magnificence of this unique rural tourism area. It is sustainable tourism development at its finest. The challenge for Big Cedar Lodge, and similar types of property (and there are not very many) is whether future managers will continue to be enlightened and supportive of sustainable tourism development. Again, like Robert Redford, bil- lionaire John Morris could live anywhere in the world, but chooses to reside in the beautiful Ozark Mountain Country within a short hike to Big Cedar Lodge. A final note with respect to John Morris, the conservationist, was his effort to find other partners interested in preserving wildlife and conservation in America with the idea of developing a facility dedicated to conservation and scientific wildlife man- agement. It was dedicated in September 2017 as the not-for-profit Wonders of Wild- life National Museum & Aquarium located in Springfield, Missouri, and managed by the Johnny Morris Foundation. In the initial audience at the opening of the Museum & Aquarium were two former U.S. presidents and many other celebrities interested in preserving wildlife.26 The timing (2017) of this special edifice, dedicated to the concept of “sustainability,” fits appropriately with the United Nations declaration of “2017 is the United Nations International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Develop- ment” which is introduced later in this book. Chapter summary This first chapter presented a general understanding of the travel and tourism industry. It noted some of the basic concepts of tourism policy and planning. The chapter also included considerable references to the importance of sustainable tourism development. For a better understanding of the components of the tourism industry, a table of selected sectors of the tourism industry was introduced. The chapter explained that consumers of tourism in the new millennium are demand- ing greater quality in their tourism products. The UNWTO definition of an international visitor was described. Also included in the chapter is a textbook definition of tourism policy and a description of a few of the elements of sustainability with respect to sustain- able tourism. 22  Introduction CHAPTER 1 Through the introduction of data from the UNWTO and the WTTC it is clear that tour- ism is the world’s largest industry. A few other international organizations involved in the tourism industry were also mentioned. Basic ingredients in a definition of sustainability were explained. The basics of tourism policy and strategic planning were introduced. A figure outlin- ing the tourism policy development process and a figure outlining goal-oriented tourism planning was included as a part of an explanation of the importance of tourism policy and planning. The concept of “peace through tourism” as important to tourism policy and planning was mentioned. The case study for Chapter 1 introduced two excellent examples of sustainable tourism destinations: the Sundance Mountain Resort and Big Cedar Lodge. Big Cedar Lodge is especially a model of good sustainable tourism practices. Today, Big Cedar Lodge demon- strates what can be accomplished successfully and profitably if the principles of good sustainable tourism polices and planning are adhered to. Chapter review questions 1 What is tourism? 2 Can you mention a few definitions of tourism policy as offered by this book? 3 Why is tourism becoming more important worldwide? 4 What kind of impact does tourism have on the economy? 5 Can you explain the diagram of the tourism policy development process? 6 Why do governments need to consider tourism policy across agencies? 7 Why should the host community be taken into consideration when developing tourism? 8 What are some of the economic benefits of tourism? 9 What are the costs, or negative aspects, of tourism development? 10 What are some examples of tourism stakeholders? 11 Should tourism policy consider issues that are not traditionally associated with tourism? 12 What makes Big Cedar Lodge a good example of sustainable tourism development? Notes 1 Edgell, D.L. (2016) Managing Sustainable Tourism: A Legacy for the Future. London: Routledge, p. 1. 2 Ibid., p. 3. 3 Goeldner, C.R. & Brent Ritchie, J.R.B. (2012) Tourism, Principles, Practices, Philosophies, 12th edi- tion. New York: John Wiley and Sons, p. 4. 4 Edgell, D.L. (2016) Managing Sustainable Tourism: A Legacy for the Future, p. 138. 23 CHAPTER 1 Introduction 5 World Travel and Tourism Council (2017) Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2016 World Edition. London. Retrieved from www/wttc.org/site. 6 World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) (2017) press release. Madrid. 7 Williams, W. & Riley, K. (2003) “Economic impact studies to gain support for youth sports from local