Critical and Analytical Reading & Thinking - Learning Guide PDF

Critical and Analytical Reading & Thinking , Objectives Key part of university/college syllabus to sharpen & develop analytical skills of students as part of their study There should be evidence of analytical skills in writing Demonstrates wider knowledge and deeper understand...

Critical and Analytical Reading & Thinking , Objectives Key part of university/college syllabus to sharpen & develop analytical skills of students as part of their study There should be evidence of analytical skills in writing Demonstrates wider knowledge and deeper understanding of subject What is Critical and Analytical Thinking? Word ‘critical’ has positive and negative meanings – does not mean just criticise Weigh up the arguments for and against Look deeper into what is being said and why it is being said Question what you read Identify strengths and weaknesses Evaluate what is being argued – do you agree with it?  Barriers to Critical and Analytical Thinking Misunderstanding of criticising Our reasoning skills are not objective – we are biased ourselves Reluctance to criticise experts Reluctance to criticise the ‘norm’ Not reading deeply enough around a subject – surface knowledge  How to think critically and analytically Form a set of questions to help you think more deeply about what you have read Apply these questions and similar ones to all of your arguments and essays/any text under observation, to encourage you to question why things are the way they are Question Bank Assess your sources What is the source? (Web, academic journal, newspaper…) What are the strengths and limitations of this source? Identify bias Does the author have a hidden agenda? What is the purpose of the writing? Does their writing reflect a political viewpoint? Who might disagree with the writer? Evaluate evidence What evidence/examples does the writer use? How reliable or useful is the evidence? Does it support the argument? Is the evidence up-to-date? Do they make any assumptions?  Consider their argument What is the main argument? What statements/evidence in the article strengthen or weaken the argument Think about the viewpoint in relation to the bigger picture – stand back Compare the same issue from the point of view of other authors – do their views differ? Draw conclusions Understand why authors have arrived at different conclusions Argue why one viewpoint is preferable to another All ideas and arguments must be supported by evidence to add credibility Question your own assumptions and biases as well as those of the author Sentence fragment & complete sentence Sentence fragment: What is a complete sentence? A complete sentence is not merely a group of words with a capital letter at the beginning and a period or question mark at the end. A complete sentence has three components: Examples: 1. a subject (the actor in the sentence) 2. a predicate (the verb or action), and 3. a complete thought (it can stand alone and make sense— it’s independent). A sentence fragment on the other hand is an incomplete sentence due to a missing: Subject Verb Or a sentence is a dependent close due to use of subordinator connection 1. Sentence Fragments Without a Subject Some sentence fragments lack a subject. Here are examples along with a possible revision: Examples: 1. Shows no improvement in your efficiency. REV: The evaluation shows no improvement in your efficiency. 2. Slammed the door and left. REV: Sarah slammed the door and left. Sentence Fragments Without a Subject (continued) Examples: 3. Running down the lane and into the forest. REV: The moose was running down the lane and into the forest. 4. Discovered the cure for the disease. REV: The researcher discovered the cure for the disease. 5. Gave many reasons but no logical ones. REV: Our boss gave many reasons but no logical ones. 2. Sentence Fragments Without a Verb Some sentence fragments lack a verb. Here are examples along with a possible revision: Examples: 1. A time of wonder and amazement. REV: That was a time of wonder and amazement. 2. Clothes and shoes scattered around the room. REV: Clothes and shoes were scattered around the room. Sentence Fragments Without a Verb (continued) Examples: 3. The elected official for our district. REV: The elected official for our district was at the ribbon cutting ceremony. 4. The answer to our prayers. REV: The answer to our prayers is a corporate sponsorship. 5. Showing her award and gloating. REV: Terri was showing her award and gloating. Read more at 3. Sentence Fragments that are Dependent Clauses Some sentence fragments are dependent clauses that cannot stand alone. Here are examples along with a possible revision: Examples: 1. Because it was raining. REV: We canceled the picnic because it was raining. 2. After I finish the project. REV: I will get a bonus after I finish the project. 3. Sentence Fragments that Are Dependent Clauses (continued) Examples: 3. Since she never saw that movie. REV: We should invite her, since she never saw that movie. 4. Such as drama, music and dance. REV: I like the arts, such as drama, music and dance. 5. To explain why that happened. REV: He neglected to explain why that happened. 6. Worrying that she would be robbed. REV: She locked the car, worrying that she would be robbed. Run- On Sentences.  A run-on is a sentence in which two or more independent clauses (i.e complete sentences) are joined without an appropriate conjunction or mark of punctuation. For example: (wrong) It is nearly half past five we cannot reach town before dark. (correct) It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark. or (Correct:)It is nearly half past five, hence we cannot reach town before dark. Or (Correct:)It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before dark.  Types of Run-On Sentence 1. Comma Splice: In this type, a comma splits two independent clauses. However, the position of this comma is a bit weak to make a complete relationship between two complete sentences. Thus, it requires a proper coordinating conjunction to make a relationship. For instance: People are mingling, everybody looked so happy.  Types of Run-On Sentence 2. Fused Sentence It occurs when a writer connects two clauses with no punctuation where main clause can make a proper sense and you would not find them smashed together, for instance: “A wise man makes his own decisions an ignorant man follows public opinion.” Or 'My instructor read my paper he said it was brilliant.'  FIVE WAYS OF CORRECTING RUN-ON SENTENCES writing requires grammatical accuracy in order for the work to be taken seriously; as a result, it is important for writers to eliminate run-on sentences in order to convey a professional tone and style. Fortunately, there are five common ways in which grammarians recommend fixing run-on sentences: Make two simple sentences of the run-on sentence. 'My instructor read my paper. He said it was brilliant.‘ Add a semicolon to divide the two sentences to imply and/or between them. 'My instructor read my paper; he said it was brilliant.' Add a comma and joining word to link the two sentences. 'My instructor read my paper, and he said it was brilliant.' Reduce the two spliced sentences to one cohesive sentence. Place a subordinating conjunction before one of the clauses How do you fix run-ons? There are four common ways to fix a run-on. Each method is explained below. Method #1 Write the two independent clauses as separate sentences using periods. Or make two simple sentences from the fused wrong sentence INCORRECT Carmen loved traveling in Italy she felt Rome was too hot. CORRECT Carmen loved traveling in Italy. She felt Rome was too hot. Method #2 Use a semicolon to separate the two independent clauses. INCORRECT Carmen loved traveling in Italy she felt Rome was too hot. CORRECT Carmen loved traveling in Italy; she felt Rome was too hot. Method #3 Use a comma and any one of the following connecting words or coordinating conjunctions: FANBOYS(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) Carmen loved traveling in Italy INCORRECT she felt Rome was too hot. for* and nor but or yet so** Carmen loved traveling in Italy, CORRECT but she felt Rome was too hot. Method #4 Use a semicolon and one of the following words: therefore, thus, however, consequently, furthermore, also, nevertheless, Carmen loved traveling in Italy she INCORRECT felt Rome was too hot. Carmen loved CORRECT traveling in Italy; however, she felt Rome was too hot. NOTE: If you use any of these connecting words with method #4, a comma must follow it. NOTE: When using semicolons, the two independent clauses must share a related or common idea. You cannot write the following sentence. Christine loves hot chocolate; I am watching TV. These two clauses are completely unrelated. Method #5 Use a subordinating conjunction. Turn one of the independent clauses into a dependent clause. A subordinating conjunction (such as because, unless, and although) connects two clauses to create a complex sentence. This option works to cement the relationship between the two parts of the sentence and may improve the flow of the clauses. Example: Because I love to write papers, I would write one every day if I had the time. Misplaced Modifiers Modifier Basics A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies—that is, gives information about another word in the same sentence. For example, in the following sentence, the word "burger" is modified by the word "vegetarian": Example: I'm going to the Saturn Café for a vegetarian burger. The modifier "vegetarian" gives extra information about what kind of burger it is. A modifier can be an adjective (a word that modifies a noun, like "burger"), but it can also be an adverb (a word that modifies a verb): Example: The student carefully proofread her draft. The adverb "carefully" is the modifier in this example—it modifies the verb "proofread," giving important details about how the proofreading was conducted. A modifier can even be a phrase or clause, as in the following example: Example: She studied in the library. Here, the phrase "in the library" gives us extra information about the verb, "studied." Modifiers can also be used for sentence variety..  Misplaced Modifiers Sentences would be pretty dull without modifiers to provide excitement and intrigue. Thanks to modifiers, words like “the bird” become “the soaring bird.” Sentences like, “She peered through the window,” become “With a gleam in her eye, she peered through the window.”  Modifiers dress up otherwise plain sentiments. However, it’s important for modifiers to stick close to the word or words they’re modifying. When they stray too far, they become misplaced modifiers. And, the further away they get, the more it looks like they’re modifying something else entirely. Let’s dive right in to some examples of misplaced modifiers and talk about why these examples don’t work.  Example #1: Mary’s Birthday Eagerly awaiting her birthday, Mary's presents were all picked up and admired by Mary many times throughout the day. Here, this sentence makes it seem as though Mary's presents were eagerly awaiting Mary's birthday. Since presents can't exhibit the emotion of feeling eager, it’s unlikely that this modifier is written correctly. The most logical explanation is that Mary was eagerly awaiting her own birthday. The sentence should be rewritten so the modifier actually modifies Mary. Correction: Eagerly awaiting her birthday, Mary picked up and admired her presents many times throughout the day.  Example #2: Mitch’s Travel Tired of all of the nights in hotels, delight overcame by Mitch when his boss finally said he didn't have to travel anymore. Here, “delight” is being modified by the phrase “tired of all of the nights in hotels.” Unfortunately, “delight” can't be tired, because delight isn't a person. Instead, it is more likely that “Mitch” is tired. We can correct this sentence by moving the proper subject next to the modifier. Correction: Tired of all of the nights in hotels, Mitch was delighted when his boss finally said he didn't have to travel anymore. Example #3: Children’s Paper Plates She served sandwiches to the children on paper plates. This sentence makes it seem like the children were on paper plates. The goal is to modify the sandwiches. Correction: She served the children sandwiches on paper plates.  Example #4: An End to His Driving He nearly drove the car for six hours a day. This one’s a little bit trickier. Technically, there’s nothing wrong with this sentence. However, the word order makes the meaning slightly ambiguous or misleading. The intent is to say that he drove for nearly six hours a day. As such, it should be revised to: Correction: He drove the car for nearly six hours a day.  Example #5: Puppies and Kittens She saw a puppy and a kitten on the way to the store. This sentence might conjure up images of a puppy and a kitten prancing down the street, headed to the local store. What should be stated here is that the woman is walking to the store and, on the way, she saw a puppy and a kitten. Correction: On the way to the store, she saw a puppy and a kitten.  Example #6: A Measly Five Dollars Only Pastor Johnson gave me $5 to clean all his sidewalks. This sentence makes it sound like only this one pastor, Pastor Johnson, paid $5. In other words, no other pastor paid $5 to clean the sidewalk. Meanwhile, the intent is to emphasize that Pastor Johnson only paid a meager amount. Correction: Pastor Johnson gave me only $5 to clean all his sidewalks.  Example #7: Failed Exams She almost failed every exam she took. It may be true that this student almost failed every exam. However, what’s meant to be said is that she did, in fact, fail many exams. In the misplaced modifier version, it sounds like the student passed all of her exams, but each individual score was close to a fail. Perhaps she kept getting a 51%. In the corrected version, it sounds like she failed most of her exams and only passed a few. In either version, the outcomes are drastically different. Correction: She failed almost every exam she took.  Example #8: People Who Laugh People who laugh rarely are sad. This is another great example of a misplaced modifier. Is it people who laugh rarely are sad? Or, is it people who rarely laugh become sad? Both may be correct. But, it’s important to be clear about the intent. Correction: People who rarely laugh are sad. Example #9: His Sister’s Horse He bought a horse for his sister called Prince. This sentence makes it sound like the sister’s name is Prince. That would be… unique. Instead, it should be made clear that the horse is named Prince, and he purchased it for the sister. Correction: He bought a horse called Prince for his sister.  Example #10: Robbed Offices Three offices were reported robbed by the Atlanta police last week. The misplaced modifier here makes it sound like the Atlanta police were the ones performing the robberies themselves. The offices were not “robbed by the Atlanta police.” It is, however, likely someone else reported the robberies to the police. Then, the police might publicize a report on the robberies Correction: Last week, the Atlanta police reported that three offices were robbed. Modifiers in a sentence should generally be placed as close to the noun, word, or phrase they're intended to modify. Misplaced modifiers can cause confusion (or sometimes a good laugh) when they're placed too far from the noun they're modifying. Dangling Modifiers What is a dangling modifier? It’s a grammatical error where the modifying word or phrase is attached to the wrong subject or where the subject is missing in a sentence. It’s fairly common and plagues even the best of writers. A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that describes, defines, or qualifies something else in a sentence. Modifiers include descriptive words such as adjectives and adverbs: adverb She always listened attentively in class. She decided to buy the blue car. adjective Modifiers can also be phrases or clauses: Anna smiled when she walked past the bar where she met her husband. Having received a promotion at work, he went out to celebrate with his family. The most common modifier mistakes are dangling modifiers and misplaced modifiers. Both terms refer to modifiers that are connected to the wrong thing in a sentence. A misplaced modifier is too far away from the thing it’s supposed to modify, while a dangling modifier’s intended subject is missing from the sentence altogether.  Dangling modifiers often take the form of an introductory phrase followed by a clause that doesn’t state the intended subject. Main clause written in active voice Dangling Corrected Fumbling in her purse, the keys could Fumbling in her purse, she could not find the keys. not be found. As she fumbled in her purse, the keys could not be found. In this example, the subject who was fumbling in her purse is not stated, so it seems like the keys were doing the fumbling. A dangling modifier like this can be fixed either by rewriting the main clause in active voice, or by revising the introductory phrase. Introductory phrase revised Recognizing dangling modifiers In a correct sentence, the subject (or doer) that is modified should immediately follow the comma after the modifier. In the example below, the introductory phrase modifies Jane, the Subject of the subject of the main clause. main clause While driving to work, Jane witnessed a car accident on the highway. Modifying phrase  When a sentence does not clearly state the subject being modified, the introductory phrase becomes a dangling modifier. Often this error is a result of a main clause written in the passive voice. While driving to work, a car accident was witnessed on the highway. In this sentence, the intended target of the modifier, Jane, is missing. Because a car accident appears where the subject should be, the sentence now suggests that a car accident was driving to work. This is an example of how dangling modifiers can result in nonsensical sentences. How to fix a dangling modifier There are two simple ways to fix a dangling modifier. Method 1: Revise the main clause One method of fixing a dangling modifier is to leave the modifier as it is and rewrite the main clause so that it begins with the subject being modified. Missing/uncl ear subject Having injured his dominant hand, it was difficult to write the exam. Having injured his dominant hand, John had difficulty writing the exam. Clear subject added In the example above, the first sentence fails to clarify whose hand was injured – it does not state the subject of the introductory modifier phrase. In the corrected sentence, the subject, John, appears immediately after the modifier phrase.  Dangling Corrected Hungry after two hours of hiking, my packed Hungry after two hours of hiking, I quickly sandwich was quickly devoured upon reaching devoured my packed sandwich upon reaching the peak. the peak. Smiling from ear to ear, the candles are blown Smiling from ear to ear, the heroine blows out out, and the novel concludes happily. the candles, and the novel concludes happily. To become a practicing dentist, many To become a practicing dentist, you must teeth must be cleaned, filled, and filed. clean, fill, and file many teeth. Method 2: Revise the modifier phrase Another method of fixing a dangling modifier is to include the subject in the introductory phrase, leaving the main clause as it is. Having injured his dominant hand, it was difficult to write the exam. Because John had injured his dominant hand, it was difficult to write the exam. In the corrected sentence, the dangling modifier is replaced with a complete clause that clearly states the subject who is doing the action.  Dangling Corrected While driving to work, a car While Jane was driving to work, a car accident caused a traffic jam on the accident caused a traffic jam on the highway. highway. Requiring more data for the Because we required more data for the study, questionnaires were collected from study, questionnaires were collected from an additional 200 people. an additional 200 people. Taken down to the cellar, the As he was taken down to the cellar, the darkness obscured the details of the room. darkness obscured the details of the room. Summary writing Summary writing is a great skill to have as a reader, writer. It’s important to be able to write all kinds of summaries - some short, condensed, and simple; some , long, and extremely detailed. Writing summaries is an easy skill to learn elaborate, and an even easier skill to practice. Summaries are an important part of everyday life, providing a way to quickly share information. STEPS TO FOLLOW WHEN WRITING A SUMMARY Quickly read the article through once to ascertain its general meaning, overall organization, and tone. Reread the article, more carefully this time, with a pen in hand to “gloss” the text. Write what the paragraph “does” (how it contributes to the argument’s development: for example, makes a claim, provides evidence, creates emotion, draws conclusion, etc.) in order to see the structure and to quickly find the thesis and main ideas.  On a separate sheet of paper, use your notes to make an outline, flowchart, or diagram of the article from the main divisions or parts of the argument. You do not need to explain everything the author has said; find the most. relevant and crucial points for readers to get an understanding of the author’s meaning and intent. Indicate the author’s main point or thesis in your outline or diagram. Use your list, notes, and outline to create a prose summary. Include the most important points and relevant supporting details, showing how the author makes connections Include the author’s full name and the title of the text in the first sentence. For example, In “Against the Grain,” David Bartholomae argues that… Refer to the author by last name in the rest of the summary. Reviewing Your Summary for Effectiveness Analyze the effectiveness and accuracy of your summary by responding to the following questions: , Does the first sentence of the summary include the source information and the original author’s main point? List the main points of the summary. Are they the same as the main points of the original article? Is there any information in the summary that should have been left out, for example, something that is too detailed or is a side note rather than a main point? Judging by the summary, what was the original author’s thesis or main point? Do you think the summary accurately reflects the author’s main point?  Are there places in the summary where your opinion about the subject matter is evident? Where? (Remember that summaries should be objective without , your opinion or analysis of the subject matter, unless the instructor has also asked for this.) Wherever you have borrowed a string of three or more words from the original text, did you use quotation marks and a citation? Letter Writing Learning Objective Students’ command of professional writing specifically on letters to editors  Different letter formats Most business letters must include a return address (letterhead or your name and address), date, an inside address (receiver's name and address), a salutation, body paragraphs, and a closing. However, there are several ways to format this information. For example, return addresses can be centered or begin at the left margin or begin at the horizontal center of the page.  There are 3 basic business letter formats. Full block letter Semi block letter Modified block letter  Full block letter writing All letter parts begin at the left margin. When writing a letter using block form, no lines are indented. Include your name, address, and phone number where you can be contacted, as well as the date. You then include the name and address of the person you are sending the letter to. With new paragraphs, just skip a line instead of indenting. Add your phone number where you can be contacted in the last paragraph. Block format is typically used for business letters. In block format, the entire text is left aligned and single spaced. The exception to the single spacing is a double space between paragraphs (instead of indents for paragraphs). An example block style letter is shown Another sample block-style letter  Modified block format Modified block differs from block style in that the date, sign off, and signature lines begin at the centre point of the page line. The beginning of each paragraph is indented five spaces, along with the subject line, if used. Depending on the length of the letter, paragraphs may be separated by a single or double line space. See an example of a letter in modified block format. Semi-block format Semi-block is similar to block but has a more informal appearance. All elements are left-aligned, except for the beginning of each paragraph, which is indented five spaces. Paragraphs are separated by a double line space. See an example of a letter in semi-block format. “Letter writing can be seen as a gift because someone has taken his/her time to write and think and express ”  Presentation Skills Learning objective: Developing communication skills of learners for individual presentation skills. Learner will be able to successfully present informative & persuasive presentations clearly. Questions? Who is your audience? Why are they there? What is your goal? How long will it be? Where will it take place? Structure Have a sound, clear structure Create interest “We need to open gaps before we close them. Our tendency is to tell people the facts. First, though, they must realize that they need these facts.” Structure Introduction Get Attention Main theme Content Summary/ Key message Conclusions Presentation Slide  Steps in giving presentation 1. Preparation (a). Objectives Why you are making your presentation? Bear in mind what you want to achieve and what you want your audience to take away with them. : what do you want your audience to have understood? what action do you want your audience to take following your presentation? how can you best design your presentation to meet your objectives? 1. Preparation (b). Audience how much will your audience already know about your topic? how can you link new material to things they might already understand? will you need to win them over to a particular point of view? 1. Preparation (C). Venue what kind of atmosphere do you wish to create? how might the room arrangement affect your relationship with the audience? can you do anything to change the arrangement of the room to suit your objectives? what audio-visual aids can you use? 2. Preparing Presentation Prepare the body of the presentation After defining the objective of your presentation, determine how much information you can present in the amount of time allowed. Also, use your knowledge about the audience to prepare a presentation with the right level of detail. The body of the presentation is where you present your ideas. 2. Preparing Presentation Prepare the body of the presentation Strategies to help you do this include the following: Present data and facts Read quotes from experts Relate personal experiences Provide vivid descriptions And remember, as you plan the body of your presentation it's important to provide variety. Listeners may quickly become bored by lots of facts or they may tire of hearing story after story. 2. Preparing Presentation Prepare the introduction and conclusion Once you've prepared the body of the presentation, decide how you will begin and end the talk. Make sure the introduction captures the attention of your audience and the conclusion summarizes and reiterates your important points. In other words, "Tell them what you're going to tell them. Tell them. Then, tell them what you told them." 2. Preparing Presentation Strategies that you can use include the following: Make the introduction relevant to the listeners' goals, values, and needs Ask questions to stimulate thinking Share a personal experience Begin with a joke or humorous story Project a cartoon or colorful visual Make a stimulating or inspirational statement Give a unique demonstration 1. Personal Notes 2. Visuals 3. Handouts  The evils of Powerpoint are familiar to everyone, they include: Too much text Too small to read and is really only serving as a crutch for the presenter Clip Art and Slide templates that have been seen a million times Spinning, wooshing, dazzlings animations Your presentation, Powerpoint or otherwise, should be a supporting aid – you want main the focus on you not your presentation. Ideally, you should be able to deliver an equally interesting presentation should the projector/computer/room/audience break. Avoid too many bullets as well – it makes the information dull for the audience. Colour Use colour well High quality images Use images to support your point Use a consistent theme 3. Practice Most people spend hours preparing a presentation but very little time practicing it. When you practice your presentation, you can reduce the number of times you utter words and phrases like, "um," "well," and "you know." These habits can easily diminish a speaker's credibility. You can also fine-tune your content to be sure you make your most important points in the time alloted. Feeling Nervous? Lack of experience Lack of preparation Lack of enthusiasm Negative self-talk It’s not about you Focus on your goal what you are going to say Audience Make them comfortable Interesting Becoming Confident Be over-prepared Rehearse and practice Know your subject Use relaxation techniques Be positive +++ Avoid stressors 4. Presenting 1. Show your Passion and Connect with your Audience 2. Focus on your Audience’s Needs Your presentation needs to be built around what your audience is going to get out of the presentation. As you prepare the presentation, you always need to bear in mind what the audience needs and wants to know, not what you can tell them. While you’re giving the presentation, you also need to remain focused on your audience’s response, and react to that. You need to make it easy for your audience to understand and respond. 4. Presenting While you’re giving the presentation, you also need to remain focused on your audience’s response, and react to that. You need to make it easy for your audience to understand and respond. 4. Presenting 3. Keep it Simple: Concentrate on your Core Message 4. Smile and Make Eye Contact with your Audience 5. Start Strongly 4. Presenting 5. Start Strongly The beginning of your presentation is crucial. You need to grab your audience’s attention and hold it.They will give you a few minutes’ grace in which to entertain them, before they start to switch off if you’re dull. So don’t waste that on explaining who you are. Start by entertaining them. Try a story (see tip 7 below), or an attention-grabbing (but useful) image on a slide. 4. Presenting 8. Use your Voice Effectively 9. Use your Body Too It has been estimated that more than three quarters of communication is non-verbal. That means that as well as your tone of voice, your body language is crucial to getting your message across. Make sure that you are giving the right messages: body language to avoid includes crossed arms, hands held behind your back or in your pockets, and pacing the stage Dealing with Questions TRACT technique 1. Thank the questioner 2. Repeat the question 3. Answer the question 4. Check with the questioner if they are satisfied 5. Thank them again Practice Person A speak for 30 seconds about your work. Person B listen. At the end ask a question. Person A use TRACT to respond.