Topics In English Linguistics Zusammenfassung PDF

Vorlesung 2: **1. Observing Language Change** - Leonard Bloomfield (1933): Linguistic change cannot be directly observed, as current methods make direct observation inconceivable. - Evolutionary forces in language change are shaped by selection and chance (source: semanticscholar.org)...

Vorlesung 2: **1. Observing Language Change** - Leonard Bloomfield (1933): Linguistic change cannot be directly observed, as current methods make direct observation inconceivable. - Evolutionary forces in language change are shaped by selection and chance (source: semanticscholar.org). **2. Historical Progression of English** - Key Texts Across Time: - *Beowulf* (c. 900): Represents Old English. - *The Ormulum* (c. 1150): Early Middle English. - Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1400): Middle English. - William Shakespeare (c. 1600): Early Modern English. - Virginia Woolf (c. 1920): Modern English. **3. The Great Vowel Shift** - Major phonological change marking the transition from Middle to Early Modern English. - Characterized by systematic changes in the pronunciation of long vowels. - Example sources: Obst & Schleburg (1999), semanticscholar.org. **4. Tracking Language Change with Corpus Linguistics** - Corpus Analysis helps trace linguistic changes in progress. - Example: Usage of periphrastic-do in negative sentences during Early Modern English. - Multiple negation patterns: - Example (1534): *\"no more never entended you neyther\"* (Thomas More). - Example (1540): *\"I neuer reuelyd to any Creature\"* (Thomas Cromwell). Vorlesung 3: **1. What is Linguistic Typology?** - The study of structural similarities and differences between languages. - Goals: - Discover recurring patterns to understand the unity, diversity, potentials, and limits of human language. - Investigate both synchronically (present languages) and diachronically (historical languages). **2. Language Universals** - Absolute Universals: Found in all languages (e.g., all languages have vowels). - Statistical Universals: Found in most but not all languages. - Implicational Universals: Hypotheses about feature correlations (e.g., \"If a language has OV word order, it likely has postpositions\"). **3. Basic Word Order Types** - Most common types: - SOV: Japanese, Tamil, Turkish. - SVO: English, Fula, Chinese. - VSO: Welsh, Arabic, Tongan. - Word order impacts related structures like postpositions, auxiliary verb placement, and relative clauses. **4. Linguistic Diversity** - There are 7,117 living languages, but only \~350 are widely spoken. - Papua New Guinea has the highest language density with 830 languages (one per 558 sq. km). - 50%-90% of today's languages are expected to die out by 2100. **5. Classification in Typology** - Genealogical Classification: Based on language families and shared ancestry (e.g., Indo-European family). - Areal Classification: Based on geographic distribution. - Cognates help reconstruct ancestral forms using principles like majority and natural development. **6. Examples of Typological Features** - Tone and Reduplication: Found in many languages as structural tools. - Eskimoan Word Formation: Recursive derivational suffixes allow an unbounded number of words derived from roots like \"snow.\" - Fula Vocabulary: 82 words for \"cattle\" reflect anthropological significance, not typological structure. **7. Explanations for Universals** - Language-Internal: - Iconicity: Semantic notions reflected in forms (e.g., *ship* vs. *ships*). - Economy: Frequently used elements get reduced (e.g., weak forms in English). - Language-External: - Discourse: Structures messages coherently. - Cognitive Processing: Preferred structures are easier to process. Vorlesung 4: **1. Phonetics vs. Phonology** - Phonetics: Studies the physical characteristics of speech sounds (articulatory, acoustic, auditory). - Phonology: Focuses on abstract linguistic patterns of sounds---how they combine, change, and contrast to produce meaning. **2. Phonemic Contrasts** - Sounds can be [contrastive] phoneme (distinguishing meaning) or [non-contrastive] (allophones). - Example: - English: Aspirated \[pʰ\] in *pit* vs. non-aspirated \[p\] in *spit* (not contrastive, allophones). - Hindi: Aspirated /pʰ/ in *phal* (\'knife\') vs. unaspirated /p/ in *pal* (\'fruit\') (contrastive, phonemes). - In English \[p\] and \[ph\] are allophone, but they are phonemes in Hindi **3. Segment Inventories** - Languages vary in the size of their consonant and vowel inventories: - Small: 6-14 segments (e.g., Rotokas has 6 consonants). - Large: 34+ segments (e.g., !Xóõ has 122 consonants, many clicks). - Typical vowel inventories are symmetrical, with most containing 5-6 vowels (e.g., /a, e, i, o, u/). **4. Syllable Structure** - English syllables can be complex (e.g., *strengths* = CCCVCCCC structure). - Languages vary widely in permissible syllable structures, from simple (e.g., CV) to complex (e.g., CCVCCC). **5. Prosodic Features** - Segment Length: - All languages have short vowels, but only 11.3% (e.g., Finnish, Japanese) have truly contrastive long vowels. - Long consonants exist in some languages (e.g., Italian *repubblica*). - **Tone:** - Tone is common globally but rare in Europe. - Simple tone systems (e.g., high vs. low tones) are more common than complex ones. **6. Cross-Linguistic Variation** - Typology identifies patterns across languages: - Contrastive Features: Such as aspiration, tone, and vowel length. - Patterns: Odd-numbered vowel systems are preferred; symmetrical distributions are common. Vorlesung 5: **1. Linguistic Variation** - **Variation is the Norm**: Neither languages nor speech communities are homogenous; linguistic variation occurs across vocabulary, phonetics/phonology, morphology, and syntax. - **Examples**: - Vocabulary: \"Semmel,\" \"Brötchen,\" etc. - Phonetics: Rhotic vs. non-rhotic varieties (AmE vs. BrE). - Morphology: Differences in German subjunctive forms (e.g., *stündest* vs. *würdest stehen*). - Syntax: Single vs. multiple negation. **2. Dialect vs. Accent** - A **dialect** encompasses pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar, while an **accent** refers only to pronunciation. - Standard English is considered a dialect, and there are both rural and urban dialects. **3. Dialect vs. Language** - A famous quote by Max Weinreich: "A language is a dialect with an army and a navy." - Dialect continua illustrate the blurred boundaries between dialects and languages (e.g., Swiss German, Dutch, Austrian German). **4. Standardization** - Involves codification of spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar in dictionaries and grammar books. - Standard varieties are prestigious, associated with political or cultural centers, and used in public life (e.g., London for English, Florence for Italian). **5. Dialect Geography** - Began in the late 19th century with figures like Georg Wenker, who surveyed German dialects using questionnaires. - Edmond Edmont and Aníbal Otero were significant contributors to linguistic atlases in France and the Iberian Peninsula. - Maps illustrate dialect boundaries (isoglosses), such as the Rhenish Fan for British English dialects. **6. Neogrammarians and Sound Change** - Focused on exceptionless sound changes, such as Verner's Law (voicing of fricatives depending on syllabic stress in Proto-Indo-European). - Example: *ziehen* -- *gezogen* in German compared to *ducere* in Latin. **7. Informant Criteria in Dialect Studies** - Traditional dialect studies focused on **NORM informants**: - Non-mobile, Older, Rural, Male. - Criticism: Overemphasis on rural areas and static models of language variation and change. **8. Critiques and Developments** - Early dialect geography was criticized for neglecting urban dialects and sociocultural factors like age, gender, and mobility. - Sociolinguistics (e.g., Labov) introduced variationist approaches that account for urban and social influences on language. **1. Key Figure: William Labov** - Pioneer in variationist sociolinguistics. - Focus: Hypothesis formulation, speech sample collection, data analysis, and connecting linguistic and social systems to study language change. **2. Variationist Sociolinguistics** - Examines **linguistic variables**, which have different realizations (variants) with the same meaning: - **Lexicon**: *car* vs. *automobile*. - **Phonology**: *-ing* vs. *-in'* (e.g., *singing* vs. *singin'*). - **Grammar**: *I didn't do anything* vs. *I didn't do nothing*. **3. Labov's NYC Study (1966)** - NYC English was traditionally **non-rhotic** (absence of post-vocalic \[r\], e.g., *far* → \[fa:\]). - Observed the **reintroduction of post-vocalic \[r\]** (\"rhoticity\") as a **change from above**: - Influenced by social class, age, style, and phonetic environment. - Driven by younger speakers and higher social classes. - Formal speech showed more rhoticity than informal speech. **4. Methodology:** - **Rapid and Anonymous Survey**: - Conducted in NYC department stores (*S. Klein*, *Macy's*, and *Saks*). - Observed how clerks pronounced \[r\] in phrases like *fourth floor*. - **Sociolinguistic Interviews**: - Minimal pairs (e.g., *god* vs. *guard*). - Word lists, narratives, casual conversations, and discussions on personal topics. **5. Social Dynamics in Language Change** - Post-vocalic \[r\] spread through social classes via: - **Hypercorrection**: Lower-middle-class speakers imitating higher-class speech. - Sociolinguistic view: Variation reflects **language change in progress**. **6. Broader Implications** - Sociolinguistics explores how changes originate, spread, and become established. - Changes are often socially motivated, tied to status or group identity. **1. Key Figures and Concepts** - **Sir William Jones** (1786): Recognized similarities between Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, leading to the concept of a **common ancestor language** (Proto-Indo-European). - **Indo-European Languages**: - Divided into **Centum** (e.g., Latin, Greek) and **Satem** (e.g., Sanskrit, Slavic) branches. - Competing theories on Indo-European origins: - **Kurgan Expansion Hypothesis**: Linked to migrations of horsemen. - **Anatolian Farming Hypothesis**: Spread with agriculture. **2. Methods in Historical Linguistics** - **Comparative Method**: - Identify **cognates** (words with common origin). - Establish correspondences and reconstruct forms of the proto-language. - **Principles of Sound Change**: - Stops → fricatives; voiceless → voiced between vowels; final vowels disappear. **3. The Beginnings of English** - **Migration Period** (Angles, Saxons, Jutes): Germanic tribes settled in Britain, bringing Old English. - Early English text: *The story of Cædmon* reveals differences in grammar, verb inflections, and syntax. **1. Viking Influence** - **Danelaw** (865-954): Scandinavian settlements in England led to significant linguistic impact. - **Linguistic Outcomes**: - Simplification and mixing of English and Old Norse resulted in a **koine** (stabilized mixed language). - Borrowed syntactic and morphological structures are rare but notable in English: - Word order (Verb-Object in English and Scandinavian). - Prepositions at sentence ends. E.g. where are you [from]? - Split infinitives (*to boldly go*). - Group genitive (*the Queen of England's hat*). **2. English as a \"Scandinavian\" Language** - Where English differs from other West Germanic languages, it aligns with Northern Germanic (Scandinavian) patterns. Vorlesung 8: **1. Standard English and Varieties:** - **Definition of Standard English**: - Functions as the benchmark for describing other varieties. - Predominantly used in writing and formal/public spoken contexts. - Codified in dictionaries and grammar books. - Taught to both native speakers and foreign learners. - Associated with education, media, business, and administration. - **Varieties of English**: - Varieties are regionally, socially, situationally, or otherwise specific subtypes of a language. - English is a **pluricentric language**, with multiple standard varieties globally. - BrE and AmE are the two standards with global reach. **2. Historical Context:** - **Old English Standard**: - Emerged in the 10th--11th centuries (West Saxon, Winchester). - Norman Conquest (1066): French dominated court/administration; Latin was used by the Church. - By the 14th century: English re-emerged in writing. - Late 15th century: Printing helped develop a homogenous standard. - **Standardization of Spoken English**: - BrE: Late 18th to early 20th century. - AmE: Mid-20th century (influenced by the Midwestern accent). - Standardization involved suppressing linguistic variability and promoting a \"standard ideology.\" **3. Key Differences Between BrE and AmE:** - **Spelling**: - Systematic differences exist (e.g., \"plough\" vs. \"plow\"; \"programme\" vs. \"program\"). - Some shared forms, e.g., \"archaeology.\" - **Pronunciation**: - **Rhoticity**: AmE is generally rhotic (pronouncing \"r\" sounds), while BrE is often non-rhotic. - **Flat \'a\'**: Present in AmE (e.g., \"cat\"). - **Pot vowel**: Differences in the pronunciation of \"o.\" - **Flapped \'t\'**: Common in AmE, making \"butter\" sound like \"budder.\" - Isolated contrasts: - BrE: /ju:/ (e.g., \"new\"), AmE: /u:/. - Stress: AmE preserves more secondary stresses in polysyllabic words (e.g., \"dictionary\"). - **Vocabulary**: - Numerous lexical differences (e.g., \"truck\" vs. \"lorry\"; \"apartment\" vs. \"flat\"). - **Grammar**: - Examples: - AmE: \"dove\" vs. BrE: \"dived.\" - AmE: \"gotten\" vs. BrE: \"got.\" - Use of the **mandative subjunctive**: - AmE: \"The government insists that the report **be** published.\" - BrE: \"The government insists that the report **should be** published.\" Vorlesung 9: **1. Overview of African American English (AAE):** - **Definition and Status**: - AAE is one of the most studied and controversial varieties of English. - Also known as \"Ebonics,\" \"African American Vernacular English (AAVE),\" or \"African American Language.\" - AAE is not genetically based but is a socially constructed ethnolinguistic variety. - **Key Characteristics**: - Historically rooted in the rural working-class speech of the American South. - Became distinct as a sociocultural variety through migration to urban centers in the North during the 20th century. **2. Linguistic Features:** - **Grammar**: - **Third-person singular -s absence** (e.g., \"She walk\" instead of \"She walks\"). - **Copula absence** (e.g., \"She acting strange\" instead of \"She is acting strange\"). - **Camouflaged forms**: Unique usage of structures resembling other dialects but with different meanings (e.g., \"She come acting like she mad\" expresses annoyance). - **Phonology**: - **Syllable-final consonant cluster reduction**: Clusters like \"best friend\" become \"bes' friend.\" - **Absence of plural marking** in measure nouns (e.g., \"five foot seven\" instead of \"five feet seven\"). - **Pragmatics and Prosody**: - Quantitative and prosodic differences distinguish AAE from other varieties. - Research into prosody and pragmatics is still limited but important. **3. Cultural and Social Context:** - **Controversies and Misconceptions**: - AAE has been the subject of public debates, such as the **Ann Arbor case** (1970s) and the **Oakland Ebonics controversy** (1990s). - Linguistic profiling: Discrimination based on ethnic voice identification. - **Educational Challenges**: - AAE-speaking children may face barriers due to systematic differences between AAE and mainstream English, especially in reading and writing. - **Sociolinguistic Dynamics**: - AAE speakers\' interaction with European American communities shows mutual linguistic influence. - Features of AAE are not fixed and vary by region, social group, and context. **4. Historical and Political Milestones:** - Events highlighting racial inequality and cultural significance, such as: - **Civil rights movement milestones** (e.g., Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial, Black Lives Matter protests). - **Notable moments in history**, including the election of Barack Obama and Kamala Harris. **5. Conclusion:** - AAE has distinct linguistic features, but these are fewer than originally claimed. - Quantitative analysis highlights significant differences from other varieties. - AAE, like all varieties, undergoes regional, social, and stylistic variation. Vorlesung 10: **1. Definition of Pidgins and Creoles:** - **Pidgin**: - Arises when groups without a common language come into contact (e.g., through trade or labor migration). - Created as a simplified form of language for communication, not aimed at fully learning another language. - Draws vocabulary from one language in the contact situation but has its own unique structure. - **Expanded Pidgin**: Gains complexity as it is used in more contexts (e.g., **Tok Pisin**). - **Creole**: - Develops when a pidgin becomes a native language for a community, often through children using it as their first language. - Creoles have a more complex grammar and structure than pidgins. **2. Historical Background:** - **Slave Trade**: - The plantation system caused a linguistic break as people with diverse native languages were forced together. - Native languages were often fragmented due to: - Isolation from native speakers. - Lack of a shared second language for communication. - Limited access to the dominant language. - Pidgins and creoles emerged in these contexts to facilitate communication. **3. Key Theories of Creole Formation:** - **Bioprogram Hypothesis (Bickerton, 1981, 1984)**: - Suggests that creoles were created by children using innate linguistic capacities to structure pidgins into full languages. - Argues that similarities across creoles reflect universal, basic language structures. - Criticisms: - Evidence shows adults also play a role in creolization (e.g., Tok Pisin and Cameroon Pidgin English). - Many \"universal\" features may actually reflect African language influence, specific to areas involving slavery. **4. Features of Pidgins and Creoles:** - Tend to have simplified grammar and phonology compared to source languages. - Feature verbal markers for tense, aspect, and mood (e.g., **Sranan** and **Haitian Creole**). **5. Sociolinguistic Significance:** - Pidgins and creoles result from extreme language contact and represent unique linguistic innovations. - They are a testament to human adaptability in communication under challenging social and historical conditions. 1. According to Leonard Bloomfield (1933), linguistic change:\ a) Can be directly observed.\ b) Is shaped by evolution and genetics.\ c) Cannot be directly observed with current methods.\ d) Is entirely random and unpredictable. 2. Which of the following texts represents Middle English?\ a) *Beowulf* (c. 900)\ b) *The Ormulum* (c. 1150)\ c) *Geoffrey Chaucer\'s works* (c. 1400)\ d) *Shakespeare\'s plays* (c. 1600) 3. What was the primary effect of the Great Vowel Shift?\ a) A change in English consonants.\ b) A systematic change in the pronunciation of long vowels.\ c) The disappearance of diphthongs from English.\ d) A shift in grammatical word order. 4. Linguistic typology is the study of:\ a) Only historical changes in language.\ b) Structural similarities and differences between languages.\ c) How languages borrow words from each other.\ d) The origin of the Indo-European language family. 5. Which of the following word orders is **least common** among world languages?\ a) SOV (Japanese, Tamil, Turkish)\ b) SVO (English, Chinese, Fula)\ c) VSO (Welsh, Arabic, Tongan)\ d) OSV (Xavante, some Amazonian languages) 6. Which of the following statements is true?\ a) Phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology studies abstract linguistic patterns.\ b) Phonetics and phonology are the same fields.\ c) Phonology only deals with written language.\ d) Phonetics does not consider articulation. 7. In Hindi, the difference between /p/ and /pʰ/ (aspirated vs. unaspirated) is:\ a) A difference in spelling only.\ b) A phonetic but not a phonemic contrast.\ c) A phonemic contrast that changes meaning.\ d) Not relevant in spoken language. 8. What does William Labov's study on NYC English reveal?\ a) The loss of rhoticity in American English.\ b) The social reintroduction of post-vocalic \[r\] due to prestige factors.\ c) That all NYC speakers use the same pronunciation regardless of class.\ d) That linguistic change is never influenced by social class. 9. Which of the following **best** defines a dialect?\ a) A version of a language spoken by a particular social group.\ b) A regional variety of a language that includes pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar.\ c) A completely different language from the standard form.\ d) A variety of speech defined only by pronunciation. 10. Sir William Jones proposed that:\ a) English and Latin are completely unrelated.\ b) Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin share a common ancestor language.\ c) Language change is completely unpredictable.\ d) The Indo-European language family originated in China. 11. The **comparative method** in historical linguistics primarily relies on:\ a) Identifying spelling changes over time.\ b) Finding and comparing **cognates** across related languages.\ c) Counting how many words a language has.\ d) Studying only written records of ancient languages. 12. One example of Scandinavian influence on English is:\ a) The shift from rhotic to non-rhotic speech in NYC.\ b) Word order similarities, such as \"This we have talked about.\"\ c) The replacement of all Old English vocabulary with Norse words.\ d) The adoption of Latin verb endings in English. 13. Standard English is best defined as:\ a) The only correct form of English.\ b) A dialect codified in dictionaries, used in education, media, and formal settings.\ c) A variety spoken only in Britain.\ d) A version of English without regional variation. 14. Which of the following is NOT a systematic difference between British and American English?\ a) Spelling differences (e.g., *colour* vs. *color*).\ b) Pronunciation of post-vocalic \[r\] (rhotic vs. non-rhotic).\ c) The complete absence of vowels in American English.\ d) Grammatical differences (e.g., *dived* vs. *dove*). 15. A characteristic of AAE grammar is:\ a) The use of exaggerated vowels.\ b) Third-person singular *-s* absence (e.g., \"She walk\" instead of \"She walks\").\ c) The addition of extra consonants to words.\ d) The complete absence of subject pronouns. 16. A common misconception about AAE is:\ a) It is a fully structured linguistic variety.\ b) It is only \"slang\" and not a real language.\ c) It shares features with Creoles and other varieties.\ d) It has a distinct grammatical system from Standard English. 1. c\) Cannot be directly observed with current methods. 2. c) *Geoffrey Chaucer\'s works* (c. 1400). 3. b\) A systematic change in the pronunciation of long vowels. 4. b\) Structural similarities and differences between languages. 5. d\) OSV (Xavante, some Amazonian languages). 6. a\) Phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology studies abstract linguistic patterns. 7. c\) A phonemic contrast that changes meaning. 8. b\) The social reintroduction of post-vocalic \[r\] due to prestige factors. 9. b\) A regional variety of a language that includes pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. 10. b\) Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin share a common ancestor language. 11. b\) Finding and comparing **cognates** across related languages. 12. b\) Word order similarities, such as \"This we have talked about.\" 13. b\) A dialect codified in dictionaries, used in education, media, and formal settings. 14. c\) The complete absence of vowels in American English. 15. b\) Third-person singular *-s* absence (e.g., \"She walk\" instead of \"She walks\"). 16. b\) It is only \"slang\" and not a real language. 1. Leonard Bloomfield's claim that language change cannot be directly observed suggests that:\ a) Historical linguistics is purely speculative.\ b) Language change must be inferred from written records and comparative analysis.\ c) Language change only happens in spoken, not written, language.\ d) Dialectologists can directly observe language evolution in real-time. 2. Which of the following best explains the significance of the Great Vowel Shift?\ a) It caused English spelling to remain phonetic while pronunciation changed.\ b) It introduced diphthongs into English and removed nasal vowels.\ c) It affected short vowels more than long vowels.\ d) It primarily occurred in Old English and stabilized during Middle English. 3. Which of the following is a valid **implicational universal**?\ a) All languages have nouns.\ b) If a language has VO (Verb-Object) word order, it is likely to have prepositions rather than postpositions.\ c) Most languages use SVO word order.\ d) If a language has adjectives, it must also have prepositions. 4. Which of the following statements is **false** regarding linguistic typology?\ a) Tone systems are more common in Africa and Asia than in Europe.\ b) The existence of reduplication is evidence of a language\'s morphological complexity.\ c) All SOV languages exclusively use postpositions rather than prepositions.\ d) Typology studies structural similarities between unrelated languages as well as genetically related languages. 5. If a phoneme has multiple allophones, this means that:\ a) The phoneme has distinct meaning in different contexts.\ b) The different allophones do not contrast in meaning.\ c) Allophones must always occur in free variation.\ d) The allophones cannot be predicted by phonological rules. 6. A language with only **six consonants** is most likely to:\ a) Have highly complex syllable structures.\ b) Rely more on prosodic features like tone or vowel length for distinctions.\ c) Contain a large number of diphthongs.\ d) Have a significantly larger vowel inventory than average. 7. Based on Labov's study, which of the following scenarios would most likely be a **change from above**?\ a) A working-class neighborhood starts using an innovative slang term that spreads to higher social classes.\ b) Younger speakers begin adopting a pronunciation associated with higher prestige groups.\ c) An isolated rural community slowly develops phonetic simplifications over generations.\ d) A phonological change occurs unconsciously and spreads naturally over time. 8. Which of the following best describes **hypercorrection** in sociolinguistics?\ a) A speaker applies a prestige variant in a context where it is not normally used.\ b) A community resists linguistic change due to conservative language attitudes.\ c) A dialect shift occurs due to language contact with a dominant variety.\ d) An attempt to suppress linguistic variability in formal writing. 9. The **comparative method** helps linguists reconstruct proto-languages by:\ a) Analyzing modern languages with shared vocabulary.\ b) Identifying **systematic** phonetic correspondences in cognates.\ c) Using historical texts to trace exact phonetic changes.\ d) Applying current linguistic structures to ancient languages. 10. What makes the **Anatolian Hypothesis** of Indo-European origins different from the **Kurgan Hypothesis**?\ a) The Anatolian Hypothesis suggests Indo-European languages spread with agriculture rather than military conquest.\ b) The Kurgan Hypothesis claims Indo-European spread through early trade networks rather than population movements.\ c) The Anatolian Hypothesis focuses only on the spread of Celtic languages.\ d) The Kurgan Hypothesis argues that Indo-European languages developed independently in multiple regions. 11. Which of the following features of English is **not** influenced by Old Norse?\ a) The introduction of the pronouns *they*, *them*, *their*.\ b) The use of a **preposition-stranding** structure (*This we talked about*).\ c) The strong verb system (*drive -- drove -- driven*).\ d) The shift from synthetic (inflectional) to analytic (word-order-based) grammar. 12. Which of the following is **true** about the development of Standard English?\ a) It was first established in the 10th century and remained unchanged since then.\ b) It originated as a dialect of London and later became codified.\ c) It was deliberately engineered by grammarians rather than naturally evolving.\ d) It has always been phonetically consistent with regional varieties. 13. Why is Max Weinreich's quote, **"A language is a dialect with an army and a navy,"** significant?\ a) It highlights that dialects become languages through military expansion.\ b) It shows that the distinction between languages and dialects is largely social and political.\ c) It means that only languages with political power can be standardized.\ d) It suggests that linguistic diversity is only preserved through conflict. 14. Which feature of AAE grammar is a **camouflaged form**?\ a) *She walk* (third-person singular -s absence).\ b) *He be workin'* (habitual aspect).\ c) *She come acting like she mad* (expressing annoyance).\ d) *I ain\'t got none* (negative concord). 15. Which of the following **best** describes why AAE speakers might face challenges in education?\ a) AAE lacks systematic grammatical rules.\ b) Standardized tests often reflect Standard English rather than linguistic diversity.\ c) AAE speakers do not understand Standard English.\ d) AAE has no written form, making literacy difficult. 1. **b)** Language change must be inferred from written records and comparative analysis. 2. **a)** It caused English spelling to remain phonetic while pronunciation changed. 3. **b)** If a language has VO word order, it is likely to have prepositions rather than postpositions. 4. **c)** All SOV languages exclusively use postpositions rather than prepositions. 5. **b)** The different allophones do not contrast in meaning. 6. **b)** Rely more on prosodic features like tone or vowel length for distinctions. 7. **b)** Younger speakers begin adopting a pronunciation associated with higher prestige groups. 8. **a)** A speaker applies a prestige variant in a context where it is not normally used. 9. **b)** Identifying **systematic** phonetic correspondences in cognates. 10. **a)** The Anatolian Hypothesis suggests Indo-European languages spread with agriculture rather than military conquest. 11. **c)** The strong verb system (*drive -- drove -- driven*). 12. **b)** It originated as a dialect of London and later became codified. 13. **b)** It shows that the distinction between languages and dialects is largely social and political. 14. **c)** *She come acting like she mad* (expressing annoyance). 15. **b)** Standardized tests often reflect Standard English rather than linguistic diversity.