Evolution - Comparative Biology Practice Questions PDF

Here is the converted text from the images into a markdown format: # Evolution ## Biochemistry * Nucleic acid: DNA -> RNA * Proteins -> amino acid ## Comparison * DNA & RNA = sequences of nucleotides/base * Proteins = sequences of amino acid ### Similarities * ↑ = closely related = sha...

Here is the converted text from the images into a markdown format: # Evolution ## Biochemistry * Nucleic acid: DNA -> RNA * Proteins -> amino acid ## Comparison * DNA & RNA = sequences of nucleotides/base * Proteins = sequences of amino acid ### Similarities * ↑ = closely related = share common ancestors * ↓ = distantly. " = x share common ancestor** ### Differences * ↓ = closely related = share common ancestor * ↑ = distantly " = x share common ancestor. ## Anatomy * Body structure/part * Monkey has tail. * Human has tail bone shrinks in size/bone vestigial.Redundant/no function. ## Fossil * Preserve remains of past life/extinct * Eg: bones, teeth, tusk/ hard tissues * Soft tissue = skin/organ = can hardly be preserved = composition * Eg: Jellyfish --- ## Comparative DNA studies * Genomic DNA = DNA located in nucleus * Mitochondrial DNA = DNA located in mitochondria *more favoured* * ↑mutation rate = more changes = more significant evidence * maternal inherited = mother only * = less complex * Complex process examples: * Crossing over * independent assortment * Nuclear/ genomic DNA * These processes combine paternal & maternal genes / chromosomes * Mitochondria comes from mother only * DNA sequencing * use * PCR = amplify DNA * Bacterial enzymes = RE = cut DNA * Gel electrophoresis separate DNA --- ### Amplify * Make DNA more / ↑no. of DNA molecule Diagram of PCR as a Polymerase chain reaction: * Primer= single stranded DNA * Nuleotides / bases (A|T|G|C) * Enzymes of DNA polymerase * Tag polymerase. * In vitro (outside the body) * Buffer/ salts = maintain pH * Activated at high °C = 95°C (x denature) * Isolated from extreme * thermophile (prokaryotes that live in extreme) * condition = hot spring --- * $2^n$= exponential amplification * $2^{30}$=>1 billion 1. Denaturation $95°C$: 2. Annealing $55°C$: 3. Extension/ elongation $72°C$: 4. 30x cycle: 5. Denaturation ↑°C: * Break hydrogen bonds * Separate into single stranded DNA 6. Annealing/ binding (↓°C): * Allow primers to bind/ anneal template DNA * Primers = complementary 7. Extension / elongation (↑°C): * Allow DNA Polymerase * (Tag polymerase) to synthesize * new strand of DNA | dsDNA | Atcg | A T C GTa tagc | | :----- | :--- | :------------------- | | SsDNA | | A TCG | | gDNA | | Tagc | --- ## RE; Restriction Enzyme/ Restriction Endonuclease * Isolated from a bacterial cell * Cut DNA *At Specific restriction / recognition site *Sticky ends : *Staggered*: *Blunt ends: straight* --- * Gel Electrophoresis Diagram gel electrophoresis 1. Seperate DNA fragment Produced from RE digestion * large fragments = slow * smaller fragments = fast 2. Agarose/ Agor medium * small pores (Barriers) 3. DNA ((-ve)charged) * ↓ tue terminal * electric current * +Ve/-ve * DNA Isolated from sources / cells of different species. * DNA treated with radiation enzyme to produce DNA structure * DNA fragments loaded into Wells * Turn on power supply / Electric current provided. * Negatively charged DNA Fragment move from -ve terminal due to (+VE). * Larger fragment moved slow to +ve / nearer to Wells. * Smaller fragment moves fast / further away from Wells. * DNA Mixed with 33dm and bromide (fluorescent dye) exposd to UV light * For visualisation DNA banding pattten can be observed. Comparison can be made --- *Closely related Sample 1&3* *Distant related Sample 1&2*, *Sample 2&3* Image of Gel electrophoresis Results: * Column marker | Sample 1 * Sample 2 | Sample 3 * Wells where the DNA is loaded * 1700bp * 1000bp: * Longest DNA Fragment * Agarose gel Direction of the DNA travels. * 500bp * 200bp * Alectrode Smallest DNA Fragment. * +Alctrode Image of genetic data with data finger print analysis: * Genetic data/Genetic information =IC * Contains your family medical history * Eg : high risk of getting cancers * 3rd party *Premium⬆ --- ## Comparative protein studies * Similar protein common protein / ubiquitous protein * Protein that can be found in all living organism * Prokaryote * Eukaryote (Bacteria) & Plants and Animals* *Have very important same Function* * Eg cytochrome Protien (mitochondrial protein) *ATP lennerage production --- Image of diagram *Phylogenetic tree showing evolutionary relationship among 5 species* |Organism | number of amino acid differences from human| |---------------|-----------------------------------------| |Chimpanzee |0| |Rhesus monkey |1 | |Rabbit |9| |Cow |10| --- * Protein = not favoured by researchers * Silent mutation = a change in a base changes no change to amino acid * ->degeneracy of genetic code * Redundancy one amino acid code by multiple triplets *Histidine=cau cac *Comparative genomics DNA *compare the similarities /differences of sequences of bases /DNA amino acid protein --- * **Comparative anatomy** - compare the structure of the body * *Homologous structure*- similar structure/ different function. * *Embryology*: Development of embryo structure. * *Vestigal structure*- similar but non function. * *Analogous Structure* -different structure//some function |Homologous Structure|Analogous Structure| |--------------|----------------| | 1)similar structure | 1) Different structure | | | 2)Different Function | 2) Same function | | | 3)Closely related | 3) Distance Related | | |4)share common ancestors | 4)dont share common ancestor | | 5)eg, pentadactyl limb | 5)sharkTail | |5 limb|| || Dolphin * *fishvertical /cartiliage (soft bone)* * *mammal horizontal Bone* --- ### Embryology * 1 - comparative embryology also provide evidence for evolutionary change over time by conparing the early stages * 2 - All vertebrate compare the all vertebrate embyos look similar to one another early development with the development tail gill * These similar suggest these organism evolved ###Vestigial Structure * vestigual structure are reduction structure that serve no purpose for the organisms * they have become redundant * Vestigal Structure are usually homologous to structure that Function normally normal * organism possessing homologous * vestigal structure and are considered evolution * FOR eg tell bow ccyx human * it re presenting Vestigal the tail significant function * For eg For climbing singing for keeping their balance --- (*Fossil) * (bonesteethhorns tusks hand -> no living tissue * soft part tissues decompose no organic substances. * footprints. minerals rocks *leaves imprinted on rocks sueface * fossils. Fossille. * are preserved remains of organisms that lived in the past (not exposed: # rapid burial * Land slide # rapid Anorobic * decomposition absent Presence of hard parts of the body * For. * LeFT disturbed Long periods # Conditions Require for facilition * rapid PH soil * Acidic /bones degrade * SoFt Tissue Preserved alkaline = Opposite effect --- all the required. Condition be fuifilled. Very Rare condision . Small percentage Fossilised * Limitation of fossil avain ability = Limited fossil avain ability * Human aCtivity * AgriCulture Industrial * buried to deep. * deep ocean # ONLY few fragments * are found ### Re conStruct based ###ON Estimation EXperience *destroyed by Natural Disaster: * volcan ic, E ruption earth quake *Climate Change* --- Diagram for Fossil Dating ### Relative Dating * qualitative method * Layers of rock: *Suppere position top: * youngest and oldests * Un Reliable ### Absolute Data * quanlitative method * Hall life of raio-isotope (time taken for origanal element that radio active decry by harlf into daughter element product) *E.. +c14 *"N" * Ha158730 life. 1 c 14 * correlation fo rock strata = index fixtel common fo be the sound and wind * C-14 dating = 57 30 ##years --- Potasinum =40 hall bife * 1,25b1ll* Years -> Inorganic rack & minerals argon 40 Can Only dote rachs adler them year. --- Topic 7: Evidence for evolution 1. What is PCR used for? (1m) 2. Describe how PCR works. (6m) 3. Describe and explain how gel electrophoresis works to determine the relationship between species. (6m) 4. Describe how each evidence for evolution below supports the theory of evolution. Give an example for each evidence. (a) Homologous structures. (3m) (b) Vestigial organs. (3m) 5. The genetic information about an individual that has been discovered by the Human Genome Project (HGP) could have all sorts of consequences. (a) List three consequences for a person. (3m) (b) What are some questions that could be debated with this genetic information in general? (3m) 6. Describe and explain two conditions that are necessary to form fossil. (4m) 7. Explain how carbon-14 dating works. (6m)