Topic 5__The Self__Full__SV.pptx

The Self Topic 5 Overview Self-concept defined and self-schemas Self-Knowledge o Introspection, observing behaviour, the role of others Self-control: executive function  Self-esteem Self-evaluation The Self-Concept  Self Concept: o The overall set of beliefs that people have about their p...

The Self Topic 5 Overview Self-concept defined and self-schemas Self-Knowledge o Introspection, observing behaviour, the role of others Self-control: executive function  Self-esteem Self-evaluation The Self-Concept  Self Concept: o The overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes o Who am I?  Basic Level: Knowing we are an entity o Distinguishing ourselves from other people  Do non-human animals have a self? o Mirror test o Some animals show awareness of self The Self-Concept  Mirror test in humans o Self-recognition develops between 18-24 months of age  Self-concept increases in complexity as we grow older o Children: describe physical traits, name, preferences o Adolescents: describe more complex relationships between traits o Adults: place less emphasis on physical characteristics and more on emotional and Self-Schemas Self-Schema o An organized body of knowledge about the self that influences what people notice, think, and remember o Includes attitudes, preferences, traits o E.g., “athletic” schema  sense of who you are  Self-schemas can bias our memory o We see (or remember) ourselves positively Example: Peters & Gawronski (2011) o Ps were led to believe that extraversion or introversion is superior o Generate explanations for why the trait was better o Ps were more likely to see themselves as possessing “superior” trait Self-Concept Clarity Self-Concept Clarity: o The extent to which knowledge about the self is stable and clearly and consistently defined  Low Self-Clarity is associated with: o o o o o Low self-esteem Higher depression and neuroticism Lower reflection (positive); more rumination (negative) Higher belief in achieving happiness through external sources More self-handicapping  High Self-Clarity is associated with: o Higher self-esteem o Higher life satisfaction o More self-compassion  Self-concept clarity can decrease in adolescence and then increase in adulthood Some associations vary by culture Cultural Differences in Defining the Self  Independent view of the self: o Defining oneself in terms of one’s own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions, and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings and actions of other people. Interdependent view of the self: o Defining oneself in terms of one’s relationships to other people; recognizing that one’s behaviour is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others.  Culture is not absolute in forming concepts of self View of self is often measured with questionnaires: o E.g., Lu & Gilmour (2007) • I believe that people should try hard to satisfy their interests (independent) • I believe that family is the source of our self (interdependent) Gender Differences in Defining the Self  Women are higher in relational interdependence o Define themselves in terms of close relationships  Men are higher in collective interdependence o Define themselves in terms of social groups  Researchers measure: o Statements Ps generate o Sentence completion (e.g., ”I am…”) o Trait rating (relational vs. collective traits)  Gender differences often are not present in collectivistic cultures Self-Knowledge: Introspection  Introspection: o The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives  People do not always know why they think, feel, and behave the way they do.  People may not spend much time introspecting Self-Awareness Theory Self-Awareness Theory o The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behaviour with their internal standards and values. o Consciousness is self-reflexive  Researchers manipulate awareness of the self o Mirrors, audio recordings, video recordings, presence of audience o More attitude-behaviour congruence when reminded of self Negative feelings: We reduce the discrepancy or avoid o Self-Awareness Cultural Differences in Self Awareness o Collectivistic people tend to have an outsider perspective on the self o Individualistic people tend to have an insider perspective on the self Example: Heine et al. (2008) o American and Japanese Ps o Rated themselves and their ideal (see results) o 2nd Study with mirror present: Canadians were less likely to cheat; no effect for Japanese Telling More Than We Know People may not know why they feel or behave as they do o Products, but not the processes, of cognition are accessible Causal Theories: o Theories about the causes of one’s own feelings and behaviours o Can come from culture Observing Our Own Behaviour We can know about ourselves by observing our own behaviour Self-Perception Theory: o When our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behaviour and the situation in which it occurs • Applies when attitudes are weak and feelings are ambiguous • Behaviour must be freely chosen (not situational) Motivational Factors in the Self  Intrinsic Motivation: o The desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures.  Extrinsic Motivation: o The desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting Intrinsic motivation is associated with: o Continuing physical activities o Better academic performance o More well-being and better relationships Adding extrinsic motivation can undermine intrinsic motivation o Overjustification effect: people view their behaviour as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which their behaviour was caused by intrinsic reasons o Task-contingent versus performance-contingent rewards. Knowing Ourselves Through Others Looking-Glass Self: o The idea that we see ourselves through the eyes of other people and incorporate their views into our self-concept Examples: o Baldwin & Homes (1987) • Women thought about friends or older family member • Enjoyed story about sexually permissive behaviour more if they previously thought about friends and less if they thought about the older family member o Baldwin et al. (1990) • Catholic women subliminally exposed to pope vs. unknown man • Rated themselves more negatively if exposed to pope Comparing Ourselves to Others  Social Comparison Theory: o We learn about our own abilities and and attitudes by comparing ourselves with other people.  Two Main Questions 1. When do we engage in social comparison? 2. With whom do we compare ourselves? People make many comparisons o Wealth/success, possessions, skills, intelligence, values/morals, and more Self-Control: Executive Function Self-Control: o Our ability to subdue immediate desires to achieve longterm goals Executive function allows for self-regulation and the ability to employ cognitive tools to achieve goals Regulation of behaviour can be difficult o Thought suppression doesn’t work o Focusing on the long-term goal doesn’t work o Implementation Intentions work • Specific plans about where, when, and how we will fulfill a goal and avoid temptation o Change the immediate environment Self-Esteem: Evaluating Ourselves We assess ourselves in positive and negative ways o Social comparison: knowing ourselves and knowing how to feel Downward Social Comparison: o The process where we compare ourselves with people who are worse than we are in a particular trait or ability o Makes us feel better if we aren’t vulnerable too Upward Social Comparison: o The process where we compare ourselves with people who are better than we are in a particular trait or ability o Can be threatening to self-esteem; can be inspiring Sociometer Theory: o The theory that self-esteem is a gauge that monitors the extent to which we are accepted or rejected by others Self-Evaluation: Biased or Accurate? Self-Enhancement: o An unrealistically positive view of oneself o Collectivist cultures display self-effacement Self-Verification Theory: o People have a need to seek confirmation of their self-concept, whether the self-concept is positive or negative. o May conflict with the need to feel good about oneself The End