Sport in Ancient Etruria and Rome PDF

Didactic Unit II. Sport in the civilisations of the Ancient Ages Topic 4. Etruria & Rome History of Sport Prof. Dr. Alejandro Leiva Arcas Bachelor's Degree in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences  Sport in Etruscan culture 2 ...

Didactic Unit II. Sport in the civilisations of the Ancient Ages Topic 4. Etruria & Rome History of Sport Prof. Dr. Alejandro Leiva Arcas Bachelor's Degree in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences  Sport in Etruscan culture 2  Historical Introduction Development between the 9th century BC and the 6th century BC. First great civilisation on the Italian peninsula, developing in central Italy (Tuscany, Latium and Umbria). Absolute monarchy based on military power. Polarised society with an absence of middle classes. For a century they imposed their rule over the primitive Romans until 509 BC when the last king, Tarquinius the Superb, was deposed, giving rise to the Roman Republic. Subsequently, they were the first 3  Features of Etruscan sport Sport occupied a very important place in Etruscan culture. In most of the tombs found, the decoration on the walls depicts sporting scenes, something very rare in the Ancient Ages. The general opinion is that they show sporting events held in honour of the deceased nobleman or king occupying the tomb, as a form of funerary games. The depiction of bodies in Etruscan art reflects the existence of a deep-rooted physical culture and systematised physical education, as shown by the muscular configuration and athletic attitude of the works of art. Etruscan athlete in bronze. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, USA. Circa 4th century BC. 4  The Etruscan women Etruscan women had greater freedom than Greek or, later, Roman women. They were allowed to participate in festivities and banquets as dancers. They could also participate as spectators in sporting events and could even act as judges. Etruscan dancers. Tomb of Triclinio. 5th century BC. 5 Sports practised by the Etruscans Athletics: Thanks to contacts with the Greeks, the Etruscans assimilated many Olympic sports such as running, discus throwing, javelin throwing and long jump. According to Herodotus, the Etruscans also practised pole vaulting, being the inventors of this discipline. Discus thrower. Tomb of the Olympiad. 520- 500 BC. Wrestling and boxing: also due to Greek influence. The depictions show well-trained fighters, probably professionals. In boxing, the fighters are shown with their fists armed with halteres, something that would continue in Roman gladiatorial fights. Fighters. Tomb of the Augurs of Tarquinia. 530 BC.  Sports practised by the Etruscans Water sports : representations have been found of nude divers jumping into the sea. More than a sport, it has been interpreted as a metaphorical evocation of the leap from life to death. The Etruscans also mastered navigation. Maritime activities included trade, fishing and, probably, piracy. Etruscan diver. Tomb of the tuffatore. Circa 470 BC. 7 Equestrian sports Chariot racing: One of the favourite activities of the Etruscans. They preferred two-horse chariots (bigas) to four-horse chariots (quadriga). The reins were tied around the hips, which increased the risk of an accident. However, this made it possible to ride with only one hand, which added to the spectacle. The whip was smaller than the Greek one ( 1 metre vs. 2 metres). The aurigas (charioteers) were not naked but wore a small tunic covering their chest. Chariot race. Tomb of the Colle. Circa 500 BC. In the chariot races, women could attend as spectators and even act as judges. Women spectators at a chariot race. Tomb of the Bighe. 500-490 BC. Equestrian sports Horse racing: this sport was also widely practised, as is shown by the images on the tombs. The Etruscans invented the "bit", a very practical innovation that helped to guide the horse. The main event was the cross-country gallop race. There was also another equestrian modality called troia, a game of skill on horseback in which the riders had to go through a maze-like course full of turns. Etruscan horseman in bronze. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New Drawing of an Etruscan vase showing the troia. Etruscan bit. British Museum. York 7th century BC. 700-650 BC. 5th century BC  Gladiatorial combat It is likely that the Etruscans were the first to use violence and suffering as a way of public entertainment. In the Tomb of the Augurs there is a scene in which an executioner (called Pershu), whips a dog that bites a condemned man who has been sentenced to death. The victim is blindfolded and holding a stick to defend himself, but the ropes held by Pershu would have prevented him from saving his life. Most authors agree that this type of public "Pershu Game". Tomb of the Augurs. 530 BC. execution was the direct precedent of the gladiatorial games. 11 Etruscan games The social life of the Etruscan upper classes involved a large number of feasts and parties. During these gatherings it was common to play games in which alcohol was the protagonist. Ascolia: consisted of keeping a glass full of wine in balance on a completely oiled goatskin. Kottabos: a game that consisted of throwing the last drops of wine from the glass into the hole of a candelabra. Borsa: gambling games with dice. Etruscans playing Kottabos. Tomb of the tuffatore. Circa 470 BC. Etruscan candelabra Sport in Ancient Rome 13  Historical introduction Founded in 753 BC. Etruscan domination and monarchy between 619 and 509 BC. Oligarchic republic between 509 BC and 27 BC. Conquest of Italy in the 3rd century BC. Maximum territorial expansion in the 1st century BC. Empire, with Augustus as the first Emperor (27 BC). Fall of the Empire in 476 AD. 14  Historical Introduction Society, set up in: - Patricians: dominant and ruling class that enjoyed a series of tax, political, legal and cultural benefits. - Plebeians: Common people with reduced rights and privileges. Mainly rural society, although with a significant percentage of urban inhabitants. - Slaves: Without any rights. They were the private property of their owners. It was not racial slavery, but anyone could end up as a slave. They were mainly prisoners of the conquered peoples, although those punished for debts or minor offences could be slaves. Greek-influenced culture, agriculturally based (large estates). Conqueror and slave- owning society. Large cities with planned urban planning in which important public buildings were erected. Spread of Latin culture throughout the Empire: language, legal system, road network, diet, public works, architecture, etc. Women had a secondary position. They were exempted from work (except for 15  From agon to ludus There was a big difference between Greek and Roman sport. For the classical Greeks, the important aspect was the competition between the participants. In Rome, spectacle was more important than anything else. Sport in Rome was characterised by: - The understanding of sport as a public entertainment function. - A lack of respect for the lives of others and a taste for violence. - The emergence of sports professionalism and economic profit. - A large-scale development of sports facilities to promote the show. - The use of sport as a means of political control of16 “Pollice Verso” by Jean-Léon Gérôme. Phoenix Art Gallery. 1872. the masses. Roman ball games 17 Roman ball games Ball games were a widespread practice among the Romans. The ball was called a pila and there were various sizes depending on the game played. Ball games were not only used for leisure or recreation, but also for other more specific purposes such as sports or military training. 18 Roman ball games Pila Paganica: most common ball. Made of a pressed core of feathers, then covered with wool and finally with an outer covering of animal skin. Medium-sized ball, neither too hard nor too soft. It was commonly found in homes, in the baths or in the palestras. Various games: avoiding the ball Pila Pagánica. 2nd century BC. falling, passing with a bounce, passing without a bounce, etc. Follis: a ball of larger dimensions. It was made of tightly sewn leather to be inflated by bellows. A very light ball that was ideal for children's games. It could also be hung from a tree and used as a "punching-ball" in boxing training. It is probably the first air chamber ball ever made. Representation of follis players. Roman ball games Pila trigónica: Three players (trigonali) arranged in a triangle (trigon). The mechanics was to pass a small ball to each other to test the reflexes of the partner, who had to catch it without dropping it. Sometimes three balls were used simultaneously. In the upper classes, slaves acted as ball boys (pilecripi). Harpastum or Haspartum: a game of great physical violence borrowed from the Greeks. It was played in teams. It consisted of carrying the ball towards the opponent's goal. Tackles, hits, dribbles, etc. were allowed. It was so popular that it became part of the physical training of the Roman legions.  Women's sport The practice of women's sport was a rare activity beyond board games. However, a mosaic dated to the first half of the 4th century AD was discovered in Villa Casale, Sicily, showing women 'bathers' practising various sports such as ball games, weightlifting, running and discus. This has been interpreted to mean that in the late imperial period upper-class women had more open access to sport 21 in mainly private contexts. Roman sports facilities 22 "Bread and Circus" Although Roman sport initially began as cult activities, it soon evolved into public spectacles and instruments of political power. For the celebration of such spectacles, the authorities invested a great deal of resources to build various venues to host major sporting events. This was the policy of "bread and circus" (panen et circenses), according to which all Romans were to have access to affordable food and public entertainment to distract their attention from other social and political problems. The main Roman sporting facilities were: 1. Amphitheatre 2. Circus 3. Thermae (hot springs) 4. Stadium 5. Campus Martius (Field of Mars) 23  Amphitheatre The Roman amphitheatre is a public building with an elliptical shape and grandstands around its perimeter that surround a space called arena where different shows were held (gladiatorial combat, naumachias, venatio, etc.). The first amphitheatres were a combination of two theatres arranged opposite each other. The earliest amphitheatres were made of wood, but later materials such as stone, brick and even marble were used. The larger ones had three or four stands and some included underground passages and hidden gates that were used in the games. The entrance was through vaulted arches called vomitoriums. Inside, people were seated according to their social class, organised by the designators (stewards). The stands were usually raised several metres above the arena. The authorities were usually seated in exclusive areas called podiums. Reconstruction of the first amphitheatre in the Roman Forum according to Mañas (2013). 24 Amphitheatre There are 385 amphitheatres listed throughout the Roman Empire. Every city of a certain size built its own amphitheatre, making it one of the most iconic architectural symbols of the Romanisation period. Pula Amphitheatre, Croatia Amphitheatre of El Djem, Tunisia Amphitheatre of Pompeii, Italy Amphitheatre of Italica, Spain 25 Amphitheatre Bullfighting at the Amphitheatre of Arles, Concert at the Nîmes Amphitheatre, France France 26  Flavian Coliseum Amphitheatre Built between 72 and 80 AD by the Flavian family, its construction was initiated by Emperor Vespasian and inaugurated after his death by his son Titus. It is one of the greatest works of Roman architecture. Its design inspired most of the amphitheatres built later. It can seat 50,000 spectators. It consists of four stands surrounding an oval arena measuring 75x44 metres. Beneath it was a complex network of tunnels, corridors and elevators for the exit of gladiators and wild animals. The roof was covered by a huge canopy. The podium was flanked by two griffins (mythological animals) from whose mouths water 27 28 29  Circus One of the most important sports facilities in Roman cities. They were only built in the main towns of the empire. Together with the amphitheatre and the theatre, they formed the triad of large facilities designed to entertain the Roman people. Their design was clearly inspired by the Greek hippodromes. Similarly, the main activity was chariot racing, although a number of other public spectacles took place in the Roman Reconstruction of a Roman circus circuses. Roman circuses were very long oval- shaped enclosures with circular tops 30 at the ends. The ring was divided in two Circus Maximus The Circus Maximus was the largest public entertainment building in Rome and one of the largest in the history of sport. It is located between the Aventine Hill and the Palatine Hill. It was 621m long by 118m wide with a capacity of 150,000 spectators. Its large dimensions allowed up to 12 chariots in parallel during the races. At the beginning it was a wooden enclosure, being successively renovated by incorporating noble materials such as stone or marble. The spinna had different decorative elements of great quality Current state of theincluding anin Rome Circus Maximus  Thermae Bath houses where physical exercises were also carried out. They were both public and private. They were very fancy buildings with an exquisite architectural style. In the large baths, there were separate areas for men and women. In the smaller ones, there were separate opening hours for them. Bath Roman Thermae, United Kingdom. The baths were usually open from midday until sunset. They were a place for relaxation 35 Thermae Employees and roles Balneator: Owner or Manager. In charge of facilities and coordination of employees. Censor: in charge of good behaviour. Fornacari: responsible for the operation of the boilers. Edil: responsible for the hygiene of the facilities. Aliptes: masseurs. 36 Thermae Rooms Apodyterium. Changing room. Room located near the entrance where the clients left their clothes. There was usually a bench and small lockers in which to leave personal belongings, which were guarded by a slave. Tepidarium. Transition room between hot and cold areas Caldarium. Hot water baths. Frigadarium. Cold water baths. Laconicum. Steam room or sauna. In addition, in the larger baths there could be palestras for exercise and tabernae Hypocaust system for water heating in the thermal baths where food and drink were sold. Thermal circuit 1. Arrival at the apodyterium 5. Hot bath in the caldarium. 2. Exercises in the palestra 6. Relaxation in the tepidarium 3. Cold bath in the frigadarium 7. massage in the aliptes room 4. Steam bath in the laconicum 8. Rest in the library or in the tabernae. 39  Campus Martius From Republican times, it was the place where soldiers exercised in preparatory manoeuvres for the war. It was surrounded by important monuments, squares, amphitheatres, thermal baths, gymnasiums, etc. The military exercises in which they were trained were: Ambulatia: resistance marches carrying weapons and supplies. Decursio: races. Saltatio: jumps. Natatio: swimming exercises. With the passage of time and the relocation of troops out of the city of Rome, the Field of Mars became the heart of Rome. It was a place for socialising and entertainment for various social groups. Other festivals and events such as contests of strength and intellectual prowess and children's games were also held at the Champ de Mars. Sporting events such as equestrian, discus, javelin, wrestling, gymnastics, ball games, dancing, etc. also took place. 41 Domitian's Stadium Stadium built by Emperor Domitian (81-96 AD) to emulate Greek athletic events. Capacity for 30,000 spectators. Its shape was similar to that of the Roman hippodromes, although smaller. The distance of the Domitian Stadium was between 200 and 250 metres. In addition to athletic events such as boxing, wrestling and Reconstruction of Domitian's Stadium pancratium, some gladiatorial combats and smaller venatio were also held here. Reconstruction of Domitian's Stadium and today's Novona Square Arches of the original grandstand Sports Events in Rome 46 Sporting events Sporting events were offered by the political and economic elite to the plebeians on a regular basis and free of charge as part of a leisure programme from which they could make a profit. Two goals were sought: to attract a large number of spectators and to stimulate their morale. There was a large catalogue of public games spread over the numerous sporting venues: gladiatorial combats, venatio and naumachias (amphitheatre); 47  Gladiatorial combat Ludi Gladiatorii The origin of gladiatorial combat in Rome dates back to 264 BC as a funerary act in commemoration of a deceased personality (munus). In 105 BC, the Roman consuls held their first great gladiatorial combat, promoted by the State, in which 74 fighters took part. Due to their success, gladiatorial fights were progressively included in the programmes of the main religious festivals. Many politicians and prominent personalities began to finance these fights as a means of self-promotion. In Imperial times, with the construction of the Colosseum, gladiatorial combats reached their peak with games lasting more than 100 days and bringing together several hundred gladiators. At first, they were organised to celebrate military victories or the appointment of a new emperor. Over time, as Rome's decline accelerated, the gladiatorial games became a social distraction from the real problems plaguing the 48 Empire. Gladiator. Mosaic in Curium, Cyprus. 3rd century AD.  Origin of gladiators 1. Slaves destined for such performances 2. Men condemned to death who went into the arena without weapons (condemned ad gladium). 3. Men condemned to death went into the arena armed but unprepared. They could win their freedom by winning the fight (ad ludus). 4. Slaves rented by owners (usually for funeral munera). 5. Freemen who voluntarily submitted themselves for debt or former legionaries who Gladiators. Mosaicwere unable to in the Archaeological adapt Museum of Madrid. 4th century AD.  Gladiatorial life The gladiators lived and trained in the ludus, a school run by a lanistae. Some had as many as 5,000 gladiators, such as Capua in southern Italy. Gladiators transferred their rights for five years, giving them a similar (if somewhat better) status to slaves. Each gladiator was given a combat identity, with specific offensive and defensive weapons. The training in the ludus included a physical part (endurance, speed, strength, reflexes) and a specific part with weapons. In addition to food, the gladiators were provided with other services such as Ludus Magnus, gladiatorial school next to the Colosseum. 1st The fighting The night before the fight, a large dinner was organised for the gladiators, which was open to the public. The next day, the gladiators entered the arena and paraded up to the emperor's podium, saying "Ave imperator, morituri te salutant” (Hail Caesar, those who are about to die greet you) Then, the probatio armorun (weapons test) took place, where the weapons were checked and the pairings were made. The combats lasted between 10 and 15 minutes and were supervised by a referee, who made sure that there were no forbidden hits or illegal actions. When a gladiator was defeated, the winner awaited the verdict of the authority while the loser pleaded for clemency. The Mosaic survival from the rate Villa of Nennig, was 2nd Germany. 93%, since century AD. 51 in the event of a Typologies of gladiators Heavy weaponry Secutor Short sword (gladius), full-face helmet, large rectangular shield, with arm and leg guards. The weight of their equipment could reach 18 kg. Well protected but with little mobility and limited endurance Used to fight against light gladiators Typologies of gladiators Heavy weaponry Murmillo Short sword and helmet decorated with feathers. It carried a rectangular shield. The combat form of the murmillo was inspired by a sea serpent-fish. It waited behind its shield, attacking only when it could strike the decisive stroke. Typologies of gladiators Heavy weaponry Thraex The sword was short and curved (called sica). The shield was small and concave in shape (called parma). He could carry additional protections on his right hand and legs. So called because he carried the typical weapons of Thracian warriors. Typologies of gladiators Heavy weaponry Provocator Standard sword and circular shield. He wore a double-visored helmet. He was noted for wearing a breastplate of metal scales on his chest. He was the only gladiator who fought against opponents of his own type, so the fights were usually very even. Typologies of gladiators Light weaponry Retiarius Lightweight gladiator. His name derives from ret ("net") because he was equipped with one as his only defensive element. His weapon of attack was a trident. He was a gladiator who sought to attack from a distance and tried to take advantage of his speed and agility. He used to fight against very heavy gladiators such as the secutor. He also often fought against the scissor. Typologies of gladiators Light weaponry Hoplomacus Inspired by the Greek hoplite. Armed with a spear, dagger and small round shield on the forearm. He usually sought attacks from a distance. Occasionally wore a helmet similar to that of the murmillo to limit his vision. Typologies of gladiators Light weaponry Scissor Its name comes from the main weapon, the "Roman scissors", a weapon that protected up to the elbow and was topped with a semicircular blade. In the opposite hand he carried a short sword. The scissor was usually paired with the retiarius in order to try to cut the net thrown by the latter, thus making for very spectacular combats. Typologies of gladiators Light weaponry Dimachaerus Saggitarius Typologies of gladiators On horseback Esedario Equestrian Typologies of gladiators Meridiani Lower-ranking gladiators who fought in the intermissions 61  Venatio Shows performed in the amphitheatre involving exotic and wild animals (tigers, lions, elephants, bears, etc.). The animals were captured in the different regions of the Empire by professional hunters or specialised companies. Four categories: Presentation of exotic beasts. Fights between wild animals. Beasts against men (bestiarii) Executions of condemned ad feras. The meat of the dead animals was distributed among the spectators. At the inauguration of the Colosseum, up to 5,000 beasts were slaughtered. 62 If an animal showed cowardice or lack of interest, its Sevaral kinds of venatios. Mosaic from Zliten, Libya. 2nd 63 century AD. Bestiarii, National Museum of Roman Art of Mérida, Spain. 64 1st century AD.  Naumachiae Representations of mock naval battles, using ships on a smaller scale Initially they took place on lakes or rivers, the first being the one organised by Julius Caesar in 46 BC on the river Tiber. Later they were held in the flooded arena of the Colosseum. During the naumachias, the naval victories of the Roman army were re-enacted, with the historic battles against Carthage in the Mediterranean being particularly noteworthy. Several poets were distributed around the stands to narrate the battle for the delight of the spectators. 65  66 Representation of a Naumachia according to Albert Kuhn,  Chariot Racing Chariot races were held in the Circus Maximus. It was organised by teams (called "quadras" or "factions"), which were commercial societies owning powerful stud farms. They were a forerunner of today's sporting societies. Each faction was identified by a colour: white, red, green and blue. At some points, gold and purple teams were temporarily added. Each team had a large staff such as veterinarians, cabinet makers, mechanics and trainers. Each race consisted of completing 7 laps around the spinna in an anti-clockwise direction. Later this was extended to 12, 24 and even 48 on occasion. Speed, danger, violence or strategies to cut off rivals were frequent in the races. Categories: bigas (2 horses), trigas (3 horses), quadrigas (4 horses) or decumiuges (10 horses). The latter was practically uncontrollable. The chariots were made of wood and were very light. 67 Some of them had sharp elements in the wheels to hurt Chariot Racing Aurigas The aurigas were those slaves, convicts, prisoners of war or very poor Romans in charge of driving the chariots. Despite their humble origins, some of them became true idols of the masses. The name millarius was created for those aurigas who had achieved more than a thousand victories. The best charioteers could win their freedom and become freedmen. Some even earned large salaries and became so popular that had statues built in their Mosaic of the Aurigas. National Museum of Roman Art, Mérida. Chariot racing Ben Hur. Directed by William Wyler. 1959. 69 Other circus games Ludi Máximi Romani Extraordinary feast of thanksgiving on the day of the return of the troops to Rome after a military campaign. Over time, with the decline of the Empire and the absence of military victories, it became a regular feast. Ludi Troiani Mock battles between young aristocrats dressed in arms and armour (between 15 and 17 years old). Different infantry and cavalry squads were set up and had to be led by a captain. Causes of the decline of Roman sport 1. The adoption of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire in 380 AD meant the rejection of the violence inherent in Roman public spectacles. 2. In the last decades of the Empire, in the face of evident decline, the elites preferred the celebration of banquets and other pleasures to the promotion of sporting games. 3. Professionalism prevented the rooting of purer values associated with the practice of sport. 4. Finally, the conquests of the Germanic tribes brought about the collapse of the Roman social, political and cultural structures, thus putting an end to the already deteriorated physical and 71 Didactic Unit II. Sport in the civilisations of the Ancient Ages Topic 4. Etruria & Rome History of Sport Prof. Dr. Alejandro Leiva Arcas Bachelor's Degree in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences