T20 Land Empires in the Age of Imperialism PDF

T20 Land Empires in the Age of Imperialism There were three major “land empires” during the Age of Imperialism and because the three resisted reforms and innovation they provided n...

T20 Land Empires in the Age of Imperialism There were three major “land empires” during the Age of Imperialism and because the three resisted reforms and innovation they provided no check to the powerful European nations that were colonizing the world. Worse, all three would collapse in the not so distant future. Recap of our three big land empires Ottoman Empire Russia Qing Dynasty By 1600 it had peaked. Peasant revolts became Peter the Great The Ming Dynasty fell to even more common, “westernized” Russia; the the Manchus in the mid sultans were ineffective, country expanded into 1600s. The new Qing inflation occurred due to Siberia. However, most Dynasty expanded, but the silver trade, conflict Russians were still in couldn’t shake the fact w/ European states serfdom, and there was they were outsiders ruling became more frequent. no rising middle class. over China. Despite the start of some Population growth put a Reforms were limited and reforms (Tanzimat), strain on resources, the resisted. Revolts were resistance to change Qing suppressed those squashed. The country remained. European who rebelled. European still lacked a middle class; influence over the influence grew (i.e. Opium serfdom remained. Ottomans grew. Wars). Industrialization Industrialization did not Industrialization did not did not occur as it did in occur as it did in Britain. occur as it did in Britain. Britain. OTTOMAN EMPIRE The second half of the 19th century saw the continuation of Ottoman decline. – Territory continued to shrink. – The Tanzimat reforms continued, but it did not end conflict or infighting. – Europeans continued to welcome this “westernization,” but in reality, they continued to see the Ottomans as the Sick Man of Europe.  In the second half of the 1800s Tanizmat reforms continued. – The end of “Jizya,” or annual tax on non-Muslims – Non-Muslims could become soldiers (interesting considering the empire was built earlier with the use of Christian janissaries) – Public education was expanded and reorganized based on the French model – The Ottoman Constitution, 1876. It established the freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before the law. – Telegraph and rail lines were constructed  Although the Tanzimat era (1839-1876) saw increased modernization, secularization, and more equality it did not put an end to nationalism within the empire. Throughout the 1860s and 1870s Armenians and Bulgarians from eastern Europe sought more autonomy and desired independence. Throughout eastern Europe armed resistance fighters would carryout uprisings. The Ottoman army would be called in to suppress such nationalist efforts - even committing atrocities against the civilian populations. Overtime, independence would be achieved.  There were also Muslims who wanted more dramatic change. – The Young Ottomans: a group of reformers, primarily educated in Western universities, who believed that the Tanzimat reforms did not go far enough. They wanted the empire to become a constitutional monarchy Memed Bey, a founding based on some European countries. member of the They wanted to syncretize Islamic Young Ottomans ideas with liberalism and parliamentary democracy.  While at the same time there were members of empire who resisted change. – Religious clerics were upset about the “secularization” of Ottoman rule. – Overtime educational reform had created greater access to higher education for non-Muslims, but not so much for the Muslim majority, which meant that commerce was more likely to be controlled by Christians – upsetting Muslims. – Europeans as whole had increasing amount of influence over the empire (i.e. railroads were built by German firms), which upset Ottoman elites.  Sultan Abdul Hamid II (reigned 1876-1909) – Suspended the 1876 constitution and abolished the new parliament; he opposed republicanism. – Tightly controlled / censored the press – He didn’t believe the Tanzimat would At first he worked strengthen the empire, instead he with some of the Young Ottomans, but favored Pan-Islamism. Rather than when a revolt took place within the embracing ethnic/religious diversity he curtailed empire his views such freedoms and thought only Islam could completely soured and he became more of a unite the empire. hardline conservative reluctant to any – Nicknamed the “Red Sultan” because change. used a secret police force to silence dissenters. – However, he did oversee modernization: more railroads and schools.  Throughout the 1800s European powers continued to hold the Ottoman Empire not as an equal, but the “sick man” entangled with problems who could be used for their own gain.  Crimean War (1853-1856) – The Russian Empire (which for years had been expanding) tried to take advantage of the vulnerable Ottomans by taking over the Caucasus region (they wanted access to the Mediterranean). – Europeans (British & French) aided the Ottomans (It wasn’t so much that the Europeans cared about Ottomans, they just weren’t sure they wanted the Russians to take some of it). – The Russians are denied the land they want. The war signified the importance and strength of “industrial” powers over nonindustrial countries. Why is it significant? – A first for newspaper propaganda & effective nursing – Traditional warfare was replaced with “modern warfare” (rifles were more important than cavalry) – It reflects imperialism Effects on the Ottomans: – The Ottoman government will become dependent on foreign assistance – Turks moved to urban areas to look for work – Few exports will leave Turkey – Young Ottomans led liberal reforms (The empire remained a dictatorship, and over time this led to even more radical groups than the Young Ottomans like the Young Turks, who wanted increased secularization and the adoption of democratic reforms.  Even parts of the empire that were breaking free were having trouble confronting the powerful states of Europe – Egypt. Egypt under Ismail carried out modernization & reform efforts just like his grandfather Muhmmad Ali. – Expanded education (more vocational and technical schools; some students were also sent to Europe for a Western education) – Further modernization of the military; he asked the US for assistance because he feared European imperialism – Expanded rail and telegraph lines – The construction of the Suez Canal It connected Mediterranean to the Red Sea and thus Indian Ocean It was mostly built w/ conscripted labor, corvée labor system; nearly 20% of Egypt’s peasants had worked on the canal – He eventually abolished the corvée system  However, to further his ambitions (including creating an empire into Africa) he borrowed money from Europeans. It bankrupted the country and caused the British to take control of Egyptian finances and the Suez Canal – this stirred a nationalist uprising, for which the British suppressed with their military and consequently took over Egypt. RUSSIA Unlike the Ottomans, the Russian Empire had expanded over the past few centuries. However, they too had to confront a stronger western Europe (Crimean War, 1853-1856) and faced resistance and problems from within when it came to reforms - like the other land empires of their day.  Quick Video Russia - Land Of The Tsars 16 This video highlights the reluctance on the part of Tsar Nicholas I to make reforms and the eventual efforts of Tsar Alexander II. http://safeshare.tv/v/rXPP1j1yahg  Tsar Alexander II (following the death of his father Nicholas) oversaw major reforms and changes in Russia: – The end of serfdom in 1861 – Ended some of the privileges of the nobility – Authorized new joint stock companies – Increased railroads throughout Russia (although it was still quite limited, and nothing quite like what existed in Western Europe) – A flourishing of intellectual & artistic work (Leo Tolstoy)  A closer look at the parallel between Russian serfdom and American slavery USA People were tied to the land, born into it Slavery ended with the civil war No reparations, some thought slaves should get “40 acres and a mule” RUSSIA Lincoln was assassinated by those who thought he went too far People were tied to the land, born into it Serfdom ended by decree Nobles got 2/3 of land, 1/3 was given to serfs afterward Alex II was assassinated by those who thought his reforms didn’t go far enough (grenade)  Although serfdom ended in 1861, (the hope was that a larger labor pool would promote industrialization, nonetheless the government continued to be the main sponsor of industrial activity) peasants were still largely uneducated & had few legal rights. Russia also had difficulties appeasing a diverse group of people, only 45% of the population spoke Russian. – Strongly anti-Semitic, pogroms (massacres) against Jews – Muslims in Central Asia & Poles resented their rulers Attempts to “Russify” led to divisiveness instead of national unity. In other words, it awoken nationalism in various territories. (This is similar to the effect of Sultan Hamid II’s efforts of Pan-Islamism in the Ottoman Empire. It did more to divide the empire than bring it together).  In the 1880s Alexander II was assassinated by a radical group who thought his reforms weren’t going far enough to help the masses. His son Alexander III came to power. Angered by his father’s death he halted any further constitutional reforms. He ruled as an autocrat / dictator. – He shutdown newspapers. – He used secret police to jail critics and those linked to revolutionary activity. – He executed those who were “radical” (one of these individuals would be the brother of Lenin, as a result Lenin would go on to be radicalized and lead a revolution against the Russian government).  Quick Video Russia - Land Of The Tsars 17 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8PFQ7Th_rAs  By 1900, Russia was industrialized (although significantly less so compared to western Europe & the U.S.); railroads were built, major coal and textile industries existed. As did a small, but growing class of business professionals who often wanted more political concessions from the tsar. People had also moved to cities for industrial work (similar to other industrialized areas these workers worked for low wages and lived in filth). Those who had wanted political and economic reform had hoped that developments in Russia would mirror that of Western Europe. As in labor unions would form, legislation would be passed to help the working class, and therefore there would be no need for any kind of revolution to bring about social change.  However, a small but growing group of radical Russians were unconvinced. They saw the tsar and his conservatives as complete obstacles to their aspirations and viewed “liberals” as too slow to bring change, (This helps explain why a radical group wished to assassinate Alexander II). These “Marxist” communists even disagreed with Karl Marx in that in order for the “proletariat” revolution to fully take place a society had to be an advanced capitalist state, Russia with all its backwardness and limited industrialization they argued was ready for change, and revolutions don’t wait for change anyway. Lenin Tsar Nicolas II (the son of Alexander III) and the Russian nobility had little interest in political change or further economic reforms. Tsar Nicholas II & the Romanov royal family  In contrast to the growing democracy of the United States, Russia (even as late as 1900) had no legal political parties, no nationwide elections or national parliament. The tsar ruled as an absolute monarch. When people have no outlet to voice their concerns, they tend to rebel. It won’t be long before Russia has a rebellion/revolution on its hands.  In addition to the problems from within, Russia was comparatively weaker than its European counterparts and new states like Japan. Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) – the imperial ambitions of Russia & Japan clashed over the territory of Manchuria in China. Significance: the better trained & equipped Japanese win, the shock of defeat caused an uprising in Russia leading to creation of a parliament (called the Duma). After rebuilding his army, Tsar Nicholas II went back to being a despot planting the seeds for resentment & future revolution.  The Japanese victory shocked the “Great Powers” of Europe. Since the 1600s the power center of the universe to them was Europe, after all this is supposed to be the “European Moment.” Yet the rise of Japan & the United States (less shocking, almost predicted) was taking place.  CHINA Like the other two major land empires of the 19th century, China faced both internal and external factors that led to their decline.  Action / reform was desperately needed: – Substantial population growth during the height of the empire had put a strain on resources, hence peasant uprisings were frequent. – Most Chinese viewed the government as corrupt. In many areas the Qing were hated simply because they were seen as “foreigners” (The dynasty was started by the Manchus). – The first opium war reflected China’s lack of military superiority and the beginning of European influence over the Chinese people.  The Second Opium War (1856-1860) once again resulted in a defeat for the Qing and a victory for the British (and French). – The opium trade was officially legalized, Europeans gained more land, and Christians were given the right to own property and evangelize.  Overtime numerous “treaty ports” were developed along the Chinese coast. The Qing gave in to European demands and granted the Europeans favorable trade status. Eventually these “spheres of influence” jeopardized Chinese sovereignty and control of their own political and economic affairs.  Domestically the Chinese continued to suppress those who rebelled (like they had in the White Lotus Rebellion). Taiping Rebellion (1850 – 1864) The mix of foreign intrusions (Manchu & British), economic problems, and general disorder resulted in a bloody civil war (close to 30 million people died – compared to 600,000 in the US Civil War).  The rebel Taipings... – were anti-Manchu – mostly rejected traditional Chinese beliefs (i.e. Confucianism) – held cult like religious views (it’s leader Hong Xiuquan thought he was the younger brother of Jesus and was destined to create a “Heavenly Kingdom of Peace” on Earth) – wanted to see land redistributed to poor peasants – mostly favored a greater sense of gender equality The Taipings revolted and waged a war against the Qing government (for a short amount of time they were able to control some areas of southern China).  A number of sieges “starved out” Taiping rebels from their fortified cities. However, the Taipings were mostly defeated not by the Qing gov’t and the national military, but rather by small regional armies fighting for the survival of their own individual provinces. The Qing were also eventually aided by the French & British. What is the significance of the Taiping Rebellion? – It proved the Qing couldn’t control China – The government was left in even more debt – Agricultural centers were ruined – There were large numbers of refugees – It finally encouraged some to make reforms  After the Taiping Rebellion the Qing Dynasty finally began to listen to reformers. Reformers wanted a policy they called,“Self- strengthening.” – This called for trying to adopt Western technology, but the holding onto of Confucian values and long- standing institutions like the use of the civil service exams. Many of these changes took place at the local level underlying a new focus on decentralization. The provincial governor Zeng Guofan is an example of these changes: Agriculture was restored Americans were brought in to advise weapons factories Education expanded (even for women)  However, this “self-strengthening” movement came after China had already experienced major problems (i.e. Opium Wars, Taiping Rebellion), and the new (and usually few) industries China did establish (textile, steel) were heavily dependent on foreigners for machinery and expertise. If anything, it only extended the life of Qing Dynasty a few decades. Furthermore, even after the reforms the Chinese peasantry continued to face hardships. Many immigrated to other places for employment opportunities – the west coast of the U.S., Malaysia, & Indonesia.  The 19th century (1800s) is a terrible time for China. – The Opium Wars and Taiping Rebellion showed that the Qing could no longer effectively run China. Europeans dominated treaty ports, agricultural lands had been destroyed, peasants led difficult lives and rebelled. – Despite the policy of “Self-strengthening” (an adoption of some Western technology, but maintaining traditional Chinese values), reforms were too late. They go from: – A large expansive empire, self sufficient enough to tell the British “no” to their goods, running trade surpluses in order to receive silver (remember mercantilism?) To: – Being in debt (annual expenditures were 10x revenues); fighting in bloody civil wars, forced to confront the effects of opium in their society, the British taking over Hong Kong.  Quick Video Lecture Decline of the Qing Dynasty This video is fantastic. It is an online lecture on China at this time. It goes into a little more depth than what is necessary and discusses a few things (i.e. Boxer Rebellion) we won’t touch on until the ORANGE unit, but nonetheless it is very good. http://safeshare.tv/v/bx4oLH-6kco RECAP Despite some reforms, all three major land empires failed to carryout significant political and economic restructuring to put their societies on a stronger footing by the end of the 19th century. – In all 3 empires they continued to live & govern by tradition until reforms were reluctantly made, and even then there was resistance. – The industrialized powers will hold the upper hand and shortly into the 20th century these land empires / dynasties would be in danger of collapsing.  SIMILARITIES & DIFFERENCES Differences Internal pressures in China likely play a larger role (peasant rebellions) than any of the internal pressures that occurred in the Ottoman or Russian empires. China and the Ottoman empires decreased in size while Russia continued to grow (well... Russia did sell Alaska, so perhaps shrinking could be a similarity?) Russia industrialized more than the other two. Russia has something in common with Europe (Christianity, languages) the Qing & the Ottomans seemed too “foreign” for Europeans. Russia & the Ottomans were in the Crimean War, but not China. Russia and the Ottomans consisted of people from different cultures & languages (in part because of their size & locations). Similarities Friction between them and Western Europe (Napoleonic invasions, Crimean War, Opium Wars) as well as internal struggles (regions breaking free, White Lotus Rebellion, Taiping Rebellion) shook their very existence. In all three, the Ottoman, Russian, & Chinese empires govts/societies are reluctant to change. Reluctance to change/reform was because people in power didn’t want to change thestatus quo, or lose their status and power. Russia and within the Ottoman empires major infrastructure was carried out (i.e. Trans- Siberian Railroad, Suez Canal) Russia and Ottomans had difficulties appeasing a diverse population, one with nationalist ambitions. Russian & Ottoman rulers had press censorship, secret police forces targeted opponents of the gov’t. Outside pressure plays a role in all three... Eventually in all three empires they sent people to either Europe or the U.S. for education. Reform comes too late, all of their governments will eventually fall. The 3 land empires were reluctant to make reforms (Nicholas, the Manchu / Qing govt.) and when they did there was usually resistance (Janissaries & ulama), some thought reform was too slow (Young Ottomans, Decembrist Revolt, Taipings).