Topic 11 Immunity PDF

CHAPTER 11 IMMUNITY (Hours: 2L + 5T) 1  CHAPTER 11: IMMUNITY 11.1 Immune Response 11.2 Antibody 11.3 Lymphocyte Development 11.4 Development of Adaptive Immunity 11.5 Immunization 11.6 Health Issue related to Immune Response UPS PSPM 2...

CHAPTER 11 IMMUNITY (Hours: 2L + 5T) 1  CHAPTER 11: IMMUNITY 11.1 Immune Response 11.2 Antibody 11.3 Lymphocyte Development 11.4 Development of Adaptive Immunity 11.5 Immunization 11.6 Health Issue related to Immune Response UPS PSPM 2 2 - 9 marks  LEARNING OUTCOMES 11.1 Immune response a) Define immunity b) Describe types of immunity. i. Innate and ii. Adaptive 11.2 Antibody a) Describe the general structure of antibodies b) State the classes of antibodies based on its structure. 11.3 Lymphocyte Development a) Describe B cell and T cell. 3 Learning Outcomes : 11.1 (a) Define immunity. IMMUNITY Ability of the body to recognize and protect itself against foreign substance that can cause disease Pathogens can be: virus, bacteria, soluble toxin protein 4 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.1 (b) Describe : types of immunity. 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Types of immunity Inherited/ Innate Adaptive Acquired inborn Exposure to infectious agent Natural Artificial Immunization Active Passive Active Passive Contact with Placenta Vaccine Serum the disease Mother’s 5 (Types of Immunity, Medizzy, n.d.) milk Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.1 (b) Describe : types of immunity. 11.1 (a) Define immunity. 1st line of defense ✓ Physical barrier that block the entry of antigen ▪ Skin, mucous membrane, secretion INNATE IMMUNITY ✓ Block the spread of 2nd line of defense antigen into the body Nonspecific defenses ▪ Phagocytic cell, natural killer cell, inflammatory response ✓ Internal defense 3rd line of defense (immune system) ADAPTIVE ▪ Humoral response IMMUNITY ▪ Cell-mediated response Specific defenses Disease 6 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.1 (b) Describe : types of immunity. 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Figure 1 7 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.1 (b) Describe : types of immunity. 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Second line of defense Figure 2 Cut of the skin causes:- ✓ Damaged cells release chemical signal Heat Swelling Pain - histamine, lymphokine Redness ✓ Blood vessel dilate (vasodilation) and more permeable ✓ Stimulates blood clotting ✓ Attract phagocytic WBC to the infected tissue Inflammatory ✓ Ingest antigen by phagocytosis response 8 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.1 (b) Describe : types of immunity. 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Humoral immune response Cell-mediated immune response Figure 4 Figure 3 9 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.1 (b) Describe : types of immunity. 11.1 (a) Define immunity. EXTRA INFO Differences between Innate and Adaptive Immune Response Innate immune response Adaptive immune response 1. The response is non-specific The response is specific (response to all foreign (response to specific antigens) antigens) 2. The immune response is The immune response is acquired present at birth when exposed to a pathogen 3. The response is fast and rapid The response is slow (0-6 hours) ( over 1-2 weeks) 4. No immunological memory Retain immunological memory 10 Learning Outcomes : 11.2 (a) Describe Learning : structure of antibodies. the general Outcomes. 11.1 (a) Define immunity ANTIBODY - immunoglobulin (Ig) - A protein secreted by plasma cells that bind to particular antigen Figure 5 11 Learning Outcomes : 11.2 (a) Describe Learning : structure of antibodies. the general Outcomes. 11.1 (a) Define immunity Structure of Antibodies Y-shaped consists of 4 polypeptide chains: - 2 identical light chains (short polypeptides chain) - 2 identical heavy chains (long polypeptides chain) ▪ Each chain has : - Constant region (C) - Variable region (V) Held together by disulfide bridges Figure 6 12 Learning Outcomes : 11.2 (a) Describe Learning : structure of antibodies. the general Outcomes. 11.1 (a) Define immunity Figure 7 ▪ Amino acid sequences in variable region varies extensively from one antibody to another ▪ The variable region of both heavy & light chains combined forming antigen-binding site ▪ Antigen-binding site binds with specific antigens 13 Learning Outcomes : 11.2 (a) Describe Learning : structure of antibodies. the general Outcomes. 11.1 (a) Define immunity Each antibody is specific for particular antigen (due to the presence of variable region) 14 Figure 6 Learning Outcomes : 11.2 (a) Describe Learning : structure of antibodies. the general Outcomes. 11.1 (a) Define immunity ANTIGEN Foreign substance/non-self that elicit an immune response by binding to receptors of B cell or T cell. 15 Figure 8 Learning Outcomes : 11.2 (a) Describe Learning : structure of antibodies. the general Outcomes. 11.1 (a) Define immunity EPITOPE - antigenic determinant - ▪ Usually 1 antigen has many epitopes ▪ Different epitope binds with different antibody Figure 9 16 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.2 (b) State : antibodies based on its structure. the classes of 11.1 (a) Define immunity. ANTIBODY ▪ 5 classes ~ based on the differences of constant region on heavy chain Figure 10 17 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.2 (b) State : antibodies based on its structure. the classes of 11.1 (a) Define immunity. EXTRA Classes of antibodies based on its structure INFO CLASSES PRESENCE FUNCTION Immunoglobulin D / Antibody type found on Involved in the activation on IgD surface of B cells lymphocyte B cell Antibody type found as Response for immediate allergic Immunoglobulin E / antigen receptors on response and protection against IgE basophils in blood and on certain parasitic infections mast cells in tissue Main antibody type in Binds to pathogen, activates Immunoglobulin G/ circulation complement protein and promotes IgG phagocytosis Main antibody type in Prevent pathogens from attaching to Immunoglobulin A/ secretions such as mucus, epithelial cells in digestive and IgA saliva and milk respiratory tract Antibody type found in Activates complement proteins, Immunoglobulin M/ circulation; largest effective in clumping virus and IgM antibody bacteria *IgG can cross the placenta and protects the fetus and, later, the newborn baby 18 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.3 (a) Describe B cell and: T cell. 11.1 (a) Define immunity EXTRA Types of Blood Cells INFO Blood Cell Erythrocyte Leukocyte Platelet Granulocyte Agranulocyte Neutrophil Eosinophil Basophil Monocyte Lymphocyte ▪ Associated ▪ Make up the ▪ Phagocytic ▪ Fight differentiate immune system ▪ Fight parasitic with immune bacterial and infection responses Macrophage fungal ▪ Phagocytic ▪ Remove foreign beings 19 and dying cells from from body Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.3 (a) Describe B cell and: T cell EXTRA. 11.1 (a) Define immunity INFO 20 Figure 11 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.3 (a) Describe B cell and: T cell 11.1 (a) Define immunity. LYMPHOCYTES produced in bone marrow Figure 12 Migrate and mature in thymus Mature in bone 21 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.3 (a) Describe B cell and: T cell 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Lymphoid Organ ▪ Mature B & T cells migrate to lymphoid organ 1 Thymus 2 Bone marrow 3 Lymph node 4 Spleen 5 Tonsil 22 Figure 13 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.3 (a) Describe B cell and: T cell 11.1 (a) Define immunity. LYMPHOID ORGANS Figure 14 23 23 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.3 (a) Describe B cell and: T cell 11.1 (a) Define immunity. COMPARE: B CELLS AND T CELLS B cell T cell Both B cells and T cells are originated from bone marrow Site of cell maturation is bone Site of cell maturation is thymus marrow gland The activated B cell proliferates The activated TC cell proliferates and differentiate to form plasma and differentiate to form B cell and memory B cell activated TC cell and memory TC cell Two types of B cells: Four types of T cells: ❖ Memory B cells ❖Cytotoxic T cells (TC ) ❖ Plasma B cells ❖Helper T cells (TH ) ❖Memory cytotoxic T cells ❖Regulatory/ Suppressor T cells 24 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.3 (a) Describe B cell and: T cell 11.1 (a) Define immunity. ❖ B CELL B lymphocytes are produced and mature in the bone marrow B lymphocytes proliferate and differentiate into: i. Plasma B cell Short-lived cell Secrete antibodies ii. Memory B cell: Long-lived cell Store the memory of previous primary immune response to initiate secondary immune response Initiate production of plasma cells that secrete antibodies rapidly when encounter the same antigen in future infection Figure 15 25 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.3 (a) Describe B cell and: T cell 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Classes of T cells Lymphocyte T T4 / CD4 cell T8 / CD8 cell Helper T cell (TH) Cytotoxic T cell (TC) Suppressor T cell (TS) a.k.a killer T cell Has receptor for ▪ Has receptor for ▪ Regulatory cell class II MHC-Antigen class I MHC-Antigen ▪ That suppress / slow down complex complex the activity of B & T cells ▪ Help prevent autoimmune reaction 26 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.3 (a) Describe B cell and: T cell 11.1 (a) Define immunity. ❖ T CELL T lymphocytes are produced in bone marrow but mature in the thymus gland: Types of T lymphocytes: Figure 16 i. Cytotoxic T cell (Tc cell) Recognize and bind to infected cells and kill it (by secretion of perforin and granzymes) ii. Helper T cell (TH cell) Secrete interleukin-2 (IL-2) in order to stimulate both B cell and cytotoxic T cell 27 Figure 17 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.3 (a) Describe B cell and: T cell 11.1 (a) Define immunity. ❖ T CELL iii. Regulatory/ Suppressor T cell Help to end the immune response when antigen has been eliminated (lower the activated B cell or T cell) iv. Memory T cell Remain in the body even after an infection is over Store the memory of previous primary immune response to initiates secondary immune response May respond rapidly upon subsequent exposure to the same antigen 28  LEARNING OUTCOMES 11.4 Development of Adaptive Immunity a) Explain Cell Mediated Immune Response. b) Explain Humoral (Antibody Mediated) Immune Response. c) Explain the various types of antigen and antibody interactions: i. Neutralization ii. Opsonization and iii. Activation of complement system d) Explain the primary and secondary immune response 29 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 Development : Immunity of Adaptive 11.1 (a) Define immunity. 30 Figure 18 © UPP Kolej MARA Seremban Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 Development : Immunity of Adaptive 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Types of Immune Response ▪ 2 types of immune response: 1) Humoral immune response (effective for free antigens) 2) Cell mediated immune response (effective for infected cells) 31 Figure 19 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes : 11.4 Development of Adaptive Immunity 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Types of Immune Response Figure 20 ▪ Involve mainly B cell ▪ Involve mainly T cell ▪ Produce antibody in plasma (body fluid ~ humor) 32 32 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 Development : Immunity of Adaptive. 11.1 (a) Define immunity Types of cell involved in immune response Type of cell Function Macrophage As phagocytic cell → engulf pathogen / bacteria / antigen/ foreign substance Act as antigen-presenting cells (APC) APC secretes Interleukin-1 to activate helper T cell Helper T cell Secretes Interleukin-2 to activate B cell and cytotoxic T cell Memory Helper Stimulates memory B cell upon the second exposure of the T cell same antigen. Involves in secondary immune response Cytotoxic T cell Release perforin and secretes granzyme to attack and destroy infected cell B cell Produces plasma cells and memory (B) cells Plasma cell Secretes antibodies Memory B cell Initiates production of plasma cell when encounter the same bacteria / antigen in future infection. 33 Involves in secondary immune response Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 Development : Immunity of Adaptive 11.1 (a) Define immunity. ❑ Adaptive Immunity involves the secretion of two types of cytokines: 1. Interleukin-1 (IL-1) 2. Interleukin-2 (IL-2) Interleukin-1 (IL-1) Interleukin-2 (IL-2) ❑ Activates helper T cells/ ❑ Stimulates growth/ proliferation TH cell to secrete IL-2 and differentiation of B cell / B lymphocyte and cytotoxic T cell/ TC cell @ ❑ Activates B cell/ B lymphocyte and cytotoxic T cell/ TC cell 34 Figure 19 Learning Outcomes : 11.4 Development Learning of Adaptive Outcomes : Immunity. 11.1 (a) Define immunity Self Antigen : MHC Proteins MHC Class I Class II ▪ found on most nucleated cells ▪ found on cells involved in immune (RBC has no MHC) response (macrophage, B cell, dendritic cell) 35 Figure 21 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 (a) Explain : immune response cell mediated 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Cell Mediated Immune Response Figure 22 ▪ Involve the activation and proliferation of helper T cells/TH and cytotoxic T cells /TC ▪ leads to the destruction of intracellular pathogens/ bacteria and virus within infected cell/transplant tissue cell/cancer cell. 36 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 (a) Explain : immune response cell mediated 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Cell Mediated Immune Response Figure 22 1. Pathogen invades the body 2. Macrophage / Antigen-presenting cell (APC) engulfs and degrades the pathogen into antigen fragments 3. Class II MHC molecules bind with the antigen and displays it on the macrophage /APC surface 4. A helper T cell then binds to MHC-antigen complex (via its T cell receptor (TCR) with the aid of CD4) 37 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 (a) Explain : immune response cell mediated 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Cell Mediated Immune Response Figure 22 5. This interaction promotes the secretion of Interleukin-1/IL-1 by the antigen-presenting cell /macrophage to activate helper T cell 6. Activated helper T cell then proliferates and differentiate into memory helper T cell and activated helper T cell 7. Activated helper T cell secrete Interleukin-2/ IL-2 to activate cytotoxic T cell 38 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 (a) Explain : immune response cell mediated 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Cell Mediated Immune Response Cytotoxic T cell Released cytotoxic T cell CD 8 10 9 protein T cell Dying receptor Perforin 11 infected cell MHC Enzy (TCR) mes Pore Infected cell Antigen fragment Figure 23 8. An activated cytotoxic T cell proliferate and differentiate memory cytotoxic T cell and activated cytotoxic T cell 9. Activated cytotoxic T cell binds at the (Class I) MHC-antigen complex of the infected cells (via its TCR with the aid of CD8) 39 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 (a) Explain : immune response cell mediated 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Cell Mediated Immune Response Cytotoxic T cell Released cytotoxic T cell CD 8 10 9 protein T cell Dying receptor Perforin 11 infected cell MHC Enzy (TCR) mes Pore Infected cell Antigen fragment Figure 23 10. Activated cytotoxic T cell releases perforin and granzymes into the infected/cancerous cell where: i. Perforin – ▪ Form pore/holes on the infected cell’s membrane ▪ Causes water and ions enter the cells 40 ▪ Causes cytolysis/ Cell swell and lysed Learning Outcomes : 11.4 (a) Explain cell mediated immune response Learning Outcomes : 11.4 (a) Explain cell mediated immune response.. Cell Mediated Immune Response Cytotoxic T cell Released cytotoxic T cell CD 8 10 9 protein T cell Dying receptor Perforin 11 infected cell MHC Enzy (TCR) mes Pore Infected cell Antigen fragment Figure 23 ii. Granzymes – ▪ Enter the cytoplasm of infected cells ▪ initiate apoptosis/ programmed cell death // causes fragmentation/degradation/degeneration/hydrolyze of protein 11. The infected cell rupture and die. 41 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 (b) Explain : humoral (antibody mediated) immune response 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Humoral Immune Response This type of response results in the synthesis and secretion of antibodies by B lymphocytes. An immune respond involve production of antibody to defense against free bacteria, toxin and virus in the body (extracellular pathogen) Figure 24 42 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes : 11.4 (b) Explain humoral (antibody mediated) immune response 11.4 (b) Explain humoral (antibody mediated) immune response 11.1 (a) Define immunity.. Humoral Immune Response 1. Pathogen invades the body 2. Macrophage / Antigen- presenting cell (APC) engulfs and degrades the pathogen into antigen fragments 3. Class II MHC molecules bind with the antigen and displays it on the macrophage /APC surface Figure 25 43 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 (b) Explain : humoral (antibody mediated) immune response 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Humoral Immune Response 4. A helper T cell then binds to MHC- antigen complex (via its T cell receptor (TCR) with the aid of CD4) 5. This interaction promotes the APC secretes secretion of Interleukin-1/IL-1 by the Interleukin-1 Helper T cell antigen presenting cell /macrophage secretes Interleukin-2 to activate helper T cell Helper T cell proliferates & activated 6. Activated helper T cell then proliferates and differentiate into memory helper T cell and activated helper T cell Figure 26 44 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 (b) Explain : humoral (antibody mediated) immune response 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Humoral Immune Response Figure 27 7. The antigen also binds to the receptor on B cell, enter B cell through endocytosis which then degrades it into fragments 8. Antigen fragment presented as class II MHC-antigen complex on the surface of the B cell 9. The activated helper T cell binds with the antigen-presenting B cell and secrete Interleukin-2/ IL-2 45 10. Interleukin-2/ IL-2 then activates the B cell Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 (b) Explain : humoral (antibody mediated) immune response 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Humoral Immune Response Figure 27 11. An activated B cell proliferates and differentiates into plasma cells and memory B cells. 12. Plasma cell produces and secrete antibodies that bind with the antigen. 13. Memory B cell responds during a second infection of the same antigen. 46 Learning Outcomes : 11.4 (a) Explain cell mediated immune response Learning Outcomes 11.4 (b) Explain : humoral (antibody mediated) immune response. 11.1 (a) Define immunity EXTRA Cell mediated Immune Response Humoral Immune Response INFO 1 Primary cell is T cell/T Primary cell is B cell/ B lymphocyte // lymphocytes // Involve B cell Involved cytotoxic T/TC cell 2 No production of antibody// Involves the production of Cytotoxic T/TC cell destroy antibody// Plasma cell produces pathogen/infected cell by apoptosis antibody to neutralize pathogen 3 Protection/ Defend against Protection/ Defend against intracellular pathogens/ infected cell extracellular pathogens in body and cancer cells fluid/blood 4 Bind to the infected cells or cancer Bind to antigens and making the cells, then lyses them. pathogens easier targets for phagocytes and complement 5 Defend mainly against fungi, Defend mainly against free protozoa, parasitic worms, and bacteria, toxins, and viruses in virus and bacteria within infected body fluids. cell and transplant tissue (cells) 47 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 (c) Explain the various: type of antigen and antibody interactions 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Antigen-Antibody Interaction ▪ Antibody binds to antigen to form antigen-antibody complex Antigen-antibody Interaction Neutralization Opsonization Activation of complement system 48 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 (c) Explain the various: type of antigen and antibody interactions 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Types of antigen and antibody interaction Antibodies do not directly destroy the antigen The antibody binds to the antigen to form an antigen-antibody complex Antibodies bind to antigen to interfere pathogen activity or mark pathogen in various ways for inactivation or destruction Figure 28 49 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 (c) Explain the various: type of antigen and antibody interactions 11.1 (a) Define immunity. EXTRA INFO 50 Figure 29 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 (c) Explain the various: type of antigen and antibody interactions 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Types of antigen and antibody interaction i. Neutralization Antibodies bound to antigens on the surface of a virus neutralize the virus by blocking its ability to bind to a host cell Bind to toxins released in body fluids, preventing the toxins from entering body cells Phagocytes eventually destroy the antigen-antibody complexes Figure 30 51 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 (c) Explain the various: type of antigen and antibody interactions 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Types of antigen and antibody interaction ii Opsonization Binding of antibodies to antigens on the surface of bacteria or virus forming aggregates that promote phagocytosis by macrophages or neutrophils. Figure 31 52 Learning Outcomes : 11.4 (c) Explain the various type of antigen and antibody interactions. Types of antigen and antibody interaction iii. Activation of complement system (and pore formation) 1. Antibodies bind to antigen on surface of pathogenic cell forming antigen-antibody complex 2. The binding antibody to antigen activate the complement system 3. Then form membrane attack complex 4. Causing formation of pores (hole) in the foreign cell’s membrane, causing water and ions enter the cell. 5. The pathogenic cell swell and Figure 32 lysed (destroyed). 53 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 (d) Explain : and secondary immune response the primary 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Primary and secondary immune response Primary immune Secondary response: immune response: Proliferation and differentiation of Immune lymphocytes response that that occur during occur during the first the second exposure to an exposure to antigen same antigen at later time. Figure 33 54 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 (d) Explain : and secondary immune response the primary 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Primary and secondary immune responses 2 Primary 3 Day 28: response to Second exposure antigen A to antigen A; first produces exposure to 1 Day 1: antibodies to A antigen B First exposure 4 Secondary response to to antigen A antigen A produces antibodies to A; 104 primary response to antigen B produces Antibody concentration 103 antibodies to B (arbitrary units) 102 Antibodies Antibodies to A to B 101 100 0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 Time (days) 55 55 Figure 34 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes : and secondary immune response Learning Outcomes : 11.4 (d) Explain the primary 11.4 (d) Explain the primary and secondary immune response 11.1 (a) Define immunity.. Primary Immune Response Figure 35 ▪ 1st exposure to an antigen trigger primary immune response ▪ After initial exposure, a lag phase occurs in which no antibody is produced ▪ Usually 3-6 days before concentration of antibody increase ▪ Due to the time needed for B cells to proliferate and differentiate into plasma cell & memory B cell 56 Learning Outcomes : 11.4 (d) Explain the primary and secondary immune response. Primary Immune Response Figure 35 ▪ During primary immune response, plasma cells secrete low concentration of antibodies ▪ The primary respond peak about 10-17 days. MHC ▪ Plasma cells produce antibody, mainly IgM ▪ The response is short-lived 57 Learning Outcomes : 11.4 (d) Explain the primary and secondary immune response. Secondary Immune Response Figure 35 ▪ Second exposure to the same antigen, a secondary immune response occur ▪ Memory B cell will recognize the same antigen faster ▪ Peak only 2-7 days after exposure ▪ Memory B cell proliferate and differentiate rapidly into plasma cell to produce antibody 58 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.4 (d) Explain : and secondary immune response the primary 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Secondary Immune Response Figure 35 ▪ The response is faster, so concentration of antibody is higher ▪ The antibody produced are mainly IgG ▪ Antibody tend to have a greater affinity for the antigen ▪ Memory B cell able to recognize antigen for longer period of time / The response is long lasting 59 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes : and secondary immune response Learning Outcomes : 11.4 (d) Explain the primary 11.4 (d) Explain the primary and secondary immune response 11.1 (a) Define immunity.. Differences between primary and secondary immune responses Primary immune response Secondary immune response EXTRA 1. The first antibody produced is The type of antibody produced is INFO mainly IgM mainly IgG 2. The amount of antibody The amount of antibody produced produced is usually relatively rises to a high level. low. 3. The lag phase is longer (3 to This lag phase is usually very short 6 days) (1 to 3 days) due to the presence of memory cells. 4. The immune response is The immune response is fast/ fast slow/ slow production of production of antibody antibody 5. Over time, antibody level Antibody level tends to remain declines to the point where it high for longer time. may be undetectable. 6. 60 The response is short-lived The response is long lasting  LEARNING OUTCOMES 11.5 Immunization a) Define vaccine. b) State the sources of antigen use to make vaccine: i. Inactivated bacterial toxins ii. Killed or weakened pathogens and iii. Genes encoding microbial protein (DNA, RNA and protein) c) State the importance of vaccination. 61 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.5 (a) Define vaccine. : 11.1 (a) Define immunity Definition of Vaccine: Vaccine is a harmless derivative of a pathogen that stimulates the immune system to mount defense against the harmful pathogen ▪ Vaccination is an artificial active immunity. ▪ involves taking by orally or by injection of treated bacteria, viruses or their toxin ▪ to stimulate the production of antibodies 62 Learning Outcomes : Learning 11.5(b) StateOutcomes the sources of: antigen use to make vaccine. 11.1 (a) Define immunity Sources of antigen used to make vaccine: i. Inactivated bacterial toxins ii. Killed or weakened pathogens iii. Genes encoding microbial protein (DNA, RNA and protein) 63 Figure 36 Learning Outcomes : Learning 11.5(b) StateOutcomes : antigen use to make vaccine the sources of 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Sources of antigen used to make vaccine Weakened pathogens Inactivated Killed bacterial pathogens toxins Gene encoding microbial protein DNA/mRNA 64 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.5(b) State : antigen use to make vaccine the sources of 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Sources of antigen used to make vaccine i. Inactivated bacterial toxins This type of vaccine are made by purifying the bacterial exotoxin. Exotoxins is then suppressed or inactivated either by heat or with formaldehyde Able to cause a immune response, but does not lead to active toxin- induced disease. E.g.: Tetanus vaccine - protection against tetanus caused by toxin from Clostridium tetani Figure 37 65 65 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.5(b) State : antigen use to make vaccine the sources of 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Sources of antigen used to make vaccine ii. Killed or weakened pathogens a) Inactivated vaccines use the killed version of the pathogen that causes a disease. E.g.: vaccine for Hepatitis A, polio. b) Live vaccines use a weakened form of the pathogen that causes disease Weakened virus or bacteria destroys the pathogen’s ability to replicate. E.g.: vaccine for measles, mumps, Rubella (MMR combined vaccine) 66 Figure 38 66 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.5(b) State : antigen use to make vaccine the sources of 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Sources of antigen used to make vaccine iii. Genes encoding microbial protein (DNA, RNA and protein) ❖ DNA: DNA vaccines are produced using viral gene fragment. DNA of encoding viral antigen is inserted in plasmid. The gene is then enters the nucleus for transcription, and finally, proteins are produced and cause an immune response. e.g.: Ebola vaccine 67 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.5(b) State : antigen use to make vaccine the sources of 11.1 (a) Define immunity. Sources of antigen used to make vaccine iii. Genes encoding microbial protein (DNA, RNA and protein) RNA: mRNA vaccine is based on a mRNA encoding the viral antigen is inserted into lipid nanoparticle e.g.: Pfizer vaccine against COVID-19 PROTEIN: Protein vaccines contain fragments of protein and/or polysaccharide from the pathogen e.g.: Hepatitis B vaccine against hepatitis B virus 68  LEARNING OUTCOMES 11.6 Health issue related to immune response a) Explain the immune suppression by HIV infection b) State autoimmune diseases. i. Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) ii. Multiple sclerosis iii. Diabetes Type I 69 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.6(a) Explain : suppression by HIV infection the immune 11.1 (a) Define immunity. HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) A type of enveloped retrovirus that caused AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) Retrovirus is an RNA virus that uses its RNA as template to make DNA with the help of reverse transcriptase 70 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.6(a) Explain the immune: suppression by HIV infection 11.1 (a) Define immunity. HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) HIV is transmitted through body fluids such as semen, blood, or vaginal discharge. Most commonly transmitted through blood contamination, sexual contact, contaminated intravenous needles or a pregnant mother living with HIV can pass the virus to a baby. Since HIV does not survive outside living cells, ordinary social contact with HIV- positive person such as hugging, hand shaking or sharing a drink do not pose a risk of infection. 71 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.6(a) Explain the immune: suppression by HIV infection 11.1 (a) Define immunity. HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) HIV attacks and destroys helper T cells (T4 lymphocytes) Therefore, these cells cannot stimulate other immune cells causing the body immune system to break down and the infected person is exposed to variety of diseases People can live many years without knowing that they have HIV but over years their immune system will become extremely compromised until they develop AIDS 72 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.6(a) Explain the immune: suppression by HIV infection 11.1 (a) Define immunity. HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) Consists of: ✓ 2 identical single stranded RNA ✓ 2 reverse transcriptase ✓ Capsid ✓ Envelope glycoprotein 73 Figure 39 The replicative cycle of HIV (EXTRA INFORMATION) 74 Figure 40 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.6(a) Explain the immune: suppression by HIV infection 11.1 (a) Define immunity. The immune suppression by HIV infection Immune suppression describes a loss of immune function. - body immune system can’t defend against foreign or abnormal cells Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) - infects helper T cells by binding specifically to CD4 accessory protein. - Infect macrophages and brain cells that have low levels of CD4. 75 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.6(a) Explain the immune: suppression by HIV infection 11.1 (a) Define immunity. The immune suppression by HIV infection HIV infects helper T cells by binding to specific CD4 receptor of helper T cells Inside helper T cells the HIV RNA undergoes reverse-transcription forming viral DNA This viral DNA is integrated into helper T cell’s DNA forming provirus Figure 41 76 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.6(a) Explain the immune: suppression by HIV infection 11.1 (a) Define immunity. The immune suppression by HIV infection Provirus can become latent/dormant/inactive in the host cell for several years As the antiviral agents only attack active replicating provirus, the dormant provirus is protected from the immune system Provirus can direct the Figure 42 production of new viruses 77 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.6(a) Explain the immune: suppression by HIV infection 11.1 (a) Define immunity. The immune suppression by HIV infection HIV has very high mutation rate It alters the protein on its surface thus reduces interaction with antibodies and cytotoxic T cells These viruses replicate and mutate further Figure 43 78 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.6(a) Explain the immune: suppression by HIV infection 11.1 (a) Define immunity. The immune suppression by HIV infection Viral replication and cell death triggered by the virus lead to loss of helper T cells, impairing both humoral and cell-mediated immune response. Figure 44 The progress of untreated HIV infection 79 Learning Outcomes : Learning Outcomes 11.6(a) Explain the immune: suppression by HIV infection 11.1 (a) Define immunity. The immune suppression by HIV infection Over time, HIV infection not only prevents the adaptive immune response but also destroys it That leads to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) It suppresses the immune system It causes the body to be susceptible to infections and cancers, that usually Figure 44 healthy immune system The progress of untreated HIV infection could defend 80  The progress of untreated HIV infection Figure 45 The three stages of HIV infection are (1) acute HIV infection, (2) chronic HIV infection, and (3) acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). During acute infection, HIV multiplies rapidly. As acute HIV infection progresses to chronic HIV infection, HIV multiplies less rapidly and HIV levels drop. However, as chronic HIV infection advances, HIV levels increase and the number of CD4 cells decreases. Declining CD4 cell levels indicate increasing damage to the immune system. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) can prevent HIV from destroying the immune system and advancing to AIDS. 81 Learning Outcomes : Learning 11.6(b) StateOutcomes : autoimmune diseases 11.1 (a) Define immunity. AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE A disease in which the body produces antibodies against its own cells or tissue. Also called autoimmunity. In autoimmune diseases, antibodies and T cells attack the body’s own tissue. 82 Learning Outcomes : Learning 11.6(b) StateOutcomes : autoimmune diseases 11.1 (a) Define immunity. SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS (SLE) Commonly called as lupus It can affect the skin, joints, kidneys, brain, and other organs. T cells in the area of inflammation produce a cytokines that promotes inflammation. Antibodies to a joint protein may generate antigen-antibody complexes that are deposited in small joints Symptom: butterfly rashes, photosensitivity, hair loss etc. Figure 46 83 Learning Outcomes : 11.6(b) State autoimmune diseases. Figure 47 84 Learning Outcomes : Learning 11.6(b) StateOutcomes : autoimmune diseases 11.1 (a) Define immunity. MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS An autoimmune disease of the central nervous system TH cells attack self myelin sheath. Causes the loss of myelin sheaths in multiple areas around axon in the brain and spinal cord that are normally myelinated. Scar tissue forms and compromises the ability of these damage neurons to transmit signals. Symptoms: numbness, muscle weakness, double vision, blindness in one eye, balance issues, and troubles with walking, sensation or coordination Figure 48 85 Learning Outcomes : 11.6(b) State autoimmune diseases. Figure 50 Figure 49 86 Learning Outcomes : Learning 11.6(b) StateOutcomes : autoimmune diseases 11.1 (a) Define immunity. DIABETES TYPE I Also known as insulin-dependent diabetes. It is a chronic condition in which the pancreas produces little or no insulin. The autoreactive T cells mistakenly destroys the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas (beta cells of islets of Langerhans). Destroy the person’s ability to produce insulin. Caused by genetics, exposure to viruses and other environmental factors. Figure 51 87 Learning Outcomes : 11.6(b) State autoimmune diseases. antibodies Figure 52 88  REFERENCES Campbell N.A & Reece, J.B., Biology, 12th ed. (2021), Pearson Education, Inc. Solomon E.P & Berg, L.R, Biology, 7th ed. (2005) Thomson Learning, Inc. Taylor, D.J, Biological Science, 3rd ed. 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