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Topic 1: The Hawthorne Study Enhanced understanding of what motivates people in the workplace o In addition to economical needs, social needs play an important role in inﬂuencing work- related attitudes and behaviors The Hawthorne E1ect Employees perform better when they feel singled out for special attention or feel that management is concerned about employee welfare What is Work and organizational psychology Refers to the subfield within psychology that is specifically concerned with human behaviour at work in, or in connection with, a work organization. It combines theoretical frameworks and applied practices to enhance work environments and organizational effectiveness. Three aspects o Behaviour of individual: Behaviour is not only understood to mean directly observable work actions, but also intentions, attitudes. § Many topics in work and organizational psychology relate to behaviour of the individual (and therefore to individual differences), such as selection, performance assessment, designing a career plan, support and advice in case of difficulties, stress management, workplace productivity § However, individual differences among those employed remain a little more in the background and attention is focused on the behaviour of what we wish to call “sets” of people. Such a set may have the characteristics of a group, defined in a social- psychological sense—such as semi-autonomous or self-steering units in a company— but this is not necessarily the case § Examines both observable actions and underlying factors like emotions, motives, and attitudes. o Task : In a strict sense, work refers to the activities someone performs based on his or her position in a work organization and entitle him/her to an income or another financial recompense. This context applies to most topics in work and organizational psychology. § But in addition, an increasing amount of interest has developed for topics relating to other forms of work. For example, it is important to know what interests and objectives pupils consider concerning their first position, how entrants to the labour market are made fully aware of the standards and values in their first company (transition), how people suddenly confronted with dismissal can be motivated by devoting themselves to new challenges (retraining), preparation for retirement o Organization : demonstrates first and foremost that work is always part of a “regulated collaboration” with others. Work presupposes “organization”, which means for example a social system with a structure consisting of distribution, assignment, coordination and control of tasks and people. § Interesting work and organizational psychological research questions relate for example to an inherent dilemma, that is to what extent can each individual’s causes, interests, and qualities run parallel with the interests, objectives, and characteristics of a work organization? (Studies the interaction between individual goals and organizational objectives) Inside this triangle, various emphases in work and organizational psychology may be distinguished. We prefer to speak of distinctions, rather than separate, isolated areas. First and foremost, work psychology: in this ﬁeld topics discussed are for example work and job analysis, task characteristics, determinants of fatigue, performance measurement, mental load and job design Second, personnel psychology: the topics that are considered to be included are all linked to staT “management” or staT care, for example recruitment, selection and placement, education and training, staT appraisal, development of managers and employees, diversity management Third, organizational psychology: this encompasses topics such as leadership, decision making, participation and industrial democracy, conﬂict and power, quality care, (re)design of organizations, organizational There is a certain arbitrariness in this trichotomy, however: A topic such as appraisal that has now been mentioned in our discussion of personnel psychology can also be approached from a work psychological point of view, for instance in emphasizing important characteristics of a job that have been identiﬁed by means of job analysis. o Another example is motivation: it can be approached from any of the three subareas, depending on the problem requiring a solution. (diTerent angles can be taken) What is being stated holds for many more topics; this is why we prefer not to separate these approaches from each another, but to view them in mutual connection as characteristic for work and organizational psychology. The domain of work and organizational psychology furthermore comprises various levels of analysis. Individual Level: Examines personal choices like training preferences and performance goals. Group Level: Studies team dynamics, collective performance, and conﬂict resolution. Organizational Level: Focuses on systemic issues such as privatization or quality initiatives. Environmental Level: Considers external factors like industry networks or economic conditions. W&O psychology as a Discipline According to Duijker, four types of discipline and an auxiliary science are central to psychology, namely experimental psychology (Psychonomic), developmental psychology, personality psychology (individual diTerences) and behavioral psychology, with methodology as backing What is also missing in this typology is social psychology, for example. Duijker however preferred the label “behavioural psychology” and expected that not only the social and cultural conditions of behaviour would be treated via behavioural psychology, but also that the contributions made by the three other disciplines would be integrated. A question that has become increasingly important and may even be crucial for the identity of work and organizational psychology in the years to come is the one regarding the relation with other disciplines concerned with work-related and organizational problems. 1. Starting from the first perspective, the main emphasis is placed on what distinguishes disciplines: work and organizational sociology is concerned with for example the functioning of societal groupings and with the role played by institutional forces, e.g. concerning differences in access to important resources (knowledge, income, etc.) 2. A second perspective on the relation with other work and organizational sciences stresses the importance of multidisciplinary. Many topics that work and organizational psychologists find themselves confronted with are not exclusively psychological. Often, however, it is possible to formulate meaningful psychological (aspects of) problems. Theories and research data of other “descent” may also lead to an important broadening of insight. It is our opinion that multidisciplinary frameworks of cooperation should be the rule rather than the exception, both in research and in practice. Work and organisational psychology has established itself as a scientific discipline by developing independently and closely connecting with work organizations The provided text discusses the distinctions between pure scientific research and applied scientific research, particularly in the context of work and organizational psychology. Origin of Research Problem: In pure scientific research, the problem arises from theoretical questions or previous research. Applied scientific research is grounded in practical problems, often arising in real-world contexts and often complex. 2. Practical Relevance: Applied research, including industrial and organizational psychology, emphasizes immediate practical relevance and contributes to broader theoretical insights. Pure scientific research may not prioritize practical application but can still have important implications for practice over the long term. 3. Laboratory Experiment vs. Field Experiment: Pure scientific research often relies on laboratory experiments, studying single phenomena under controlled conditions. Applied research, especially in work and organizational psychology, faces challenges in applying controlled circumstances, often resorting to quasi-experimental designs or field studies. 4. Research Design Challenges: Applied research is constrained by limitations specific to the organizations commissioning or being studied. Field experiments in work and organizational psychology are often quasi-experimental, with unique challenges and threats to validity that require creative solutions. 5. Tailoring of Study Design: Both pure and applied research involve tailoring study designs, hypotheses, instruments, and data analysis methods to the specific problem at hand. 6. Recommendations and Applicability: Recommendations derived from research results in applied settings are specific to the circumstances of a particular company. The concept of "applied" in work and organizational psychology does not always clarify its relation to other psychological subdisciplines. 7. Application in Practice: The term "applied" in work and organizational psychology may refer to using instruments in specific cases or providing advice based on scientific knowledge. Use or exploitation of psychological research and insights focuses on practical effectiveness rather than strict scientific correctness. Applied research in WOP often employs quasi-experimental designs, field studies, and tailored hypotheses. In summary, the distinction between pure and applied scientific research lies in the origin of the research problem, with applied research emphasizing immediate practical relevance and facing unique challenges in real-world settings. The application of psychological research in practice involves tailoring approaches to specific cases and prioritizing effectiveness over scientific correctness. Future Topics in Work and Organizational Psychology Emerging trends and changes in work organizations are reshaping the field, introducing new areas of focus: 1. Self-Steering Workforces: o Increased emphasis on concepts like self-eTicacy, self-identity, and self-regulation. o Motivation strategies for self-directed employees are gaining importance. 2. Quality of Work and Well-Being: o Research focuses on promoting health at work, reducing stress, and improving work-life balance. 3. Organizational Change: o Understanding the dynamics of planned, radical organizational changes driven by self- directed teams. 4. Personality and Work Interaction: o Examining the eTects of stable personality traits in rapidly changing work environments. 5. Cultural and Ethnic Diversity: o Increasing attention on contingent approaches that respect cultural diTerences and individual values. Topic 2: Leadership and Power Leadership The term leadership means diTerent things to diTerent people o Vary in terms of emphasis on leader abilities, personality traits, inﬂuence, relationships cognitive versus emotional orientation, individual versus group orientation, and appeal to self versus collective interests. o Deﬁnitions also vary in whether they are primarily descriptive or normative in nature as well as in their relative emphasis on behavioral styles Three implications of this view should be noted. 1. Leadership involves inﬂuencing individuals willingly to contribute to the good of the group. 2. Leadership requires coordinating and guiding the group to achieve its goals. 3. Goals vary by organization Management vs. Leadership: Leadership: o Coping with change o Providing vision and strategy (future orientated) o Motivation and inspiration Management o Coping with complexity o Administration of resources (including people) o Day to day operation of business o Revolves around excel spreadsheet Both aspects are essential in organisations Implicit leadership theories Are images that everyone holds about the traits and behaviors of leaders in general ‘Implicit theories are cognitive frameworks or categorization systems that are in use during information processing to encode, process and recall speciﬁc events and behavior. An implicit theory can also be conceived as the personalized factor structure we use for information processing’. Implicit leadership theories (ILTs) are seen as personal constructs used to make judgments about leadership. o They can have real life implications Leadership throughout the years Trait approach Early research into leadership can be characterized as a search for ‘the great man.’ Personal characteristics of leaders were emphasized and the implicit idea was that leaders are born rather than made First, physical features, such as height, physique, appearance, and age. o Second ability characteristics such as intelligence, knowledge, and ﬂuency of speech. o And third, personality traits such as dominance, emotional control and expressiveness, and introversion–extraversion. Other studies have also shown that traits or personal characteristics do indeed play a more signiﬁcant role in leadership than was concluded earlier (modern updates) o Kirkpatrick and Locke’s (1991) review suggests that drive, a desire to lead, honesty and integrity, self-conﬁdence, cognitive ability, and knowledge of the business are personal characteristics that distinguish leaders from non-leaders. Other traits predicting eTective leadership include: high energy level and stress tolerance, internal locus of control orientation, emotional maturity, socialized power motivation, moderate achievement motivation, and a low need for aTiliation The Behaviour Approach The style approach implied that leadership is a behavioral pattern, which can be learned. Thus, according to this approach, once one was able to discover the ‘right’ style, people could be trained to exhibit that behavior and become better leaders. The Ohio State researchers concluded that leadership style could best be described as varying along two dimensions, i.e., ‘consideration’ and ‘initiating structure’ (e.g., Fleishman & Harris, 1962). o A second major research program concerning leader behavior in this period was carried out at the University of Michigan. The results of these studies show that they found three types of leader behavior diTerentiating between eTective and ineTective managers: task-oriented behavior, relationship-oriented behavior, and participative leadership. Some researchers proposed ‘universal’ theories of eTective leader behavior, stating that, for instance, eTective leaders are both people- and task-oriented, so-called ‘high–high’ leaders. o Blake and Mouton’s (1982) managerial grid is an example of such a ‘high–high’ theory. Other prominent ‘universal’ theories were based on the idea that leaders who make extensive use of participative decision procedures are more eTective than other leaders (e.g., Likert, 1967; McGregor, 1960). Task-oriented behavior: to improve the eTiciency and reliability of activities carried out by the leader’s team or work unit planning work unit activities clarifying roles and objectives monitoring operations and performance problem solving (Yukl, 2012) Relations-oriented behavior: to maintain subordinate task commitment, conﬁdence and cooperation supporting developing recognizing and rewarding empowering Change-oriented behavior : to identify and implement desirable changes in tasks, outputs or work procedures advocating change, encouraging innovation envisioning change Contingency Approach The main proposition in contingency approaches is that the eTectiveness of a given leadership style is contingent on the situation, implying that certain leader behaviors will be eTective in some situations but not in others. a) Fiedler’s Model : The earliest contingency theory of leader eTectiveness was the theory by Fiedler (1967). Fiedler is well-known and heavily criticized for his ‘least-preferred-coworker’ (LPC) measure. o The basic assumption is that a leader’s description of the person with whom he has the greatest diTiculty working reﬂects a basic leadership style. o A second assumption is that which of the basic leadership styles contributes most to group performance varies with the ‘situation favourability.’ This favourability is determined by weighting and combining three aspects of the situation, namely leader–member relations, position power and task structure. § For instance, a situation is least favourable for a leader when leader–member relations are poor, position power is low and the task is unstructured. The model predicts that when the situation is either highly favourable or very unfavourable, low LPC leaders are more eTective than high LPC leaders. In intermediate situations, high LPC leaders should be more eTective than low LPC leaders. Situational Leadership : Theory Hersey and Blanchard’s (1969, 1977) situational leadership theory (SLT) has been a popular basis for leadership training for many years. Originally SLT proposes that leaders should attune their behavior to fit with the ‘maturity’ or in later writings the ‘development level’ of the team as a whole as well as its individual members. Combining high or low task and relationship behavior creates four different leadership styles: telling (high task, low relations); selling (high, high); participating (low task, high relations); and delegating (low, low). The Normative Decision-Making Model, proposed by Vroom and Yetton in 1973 and later updated by Vroom and Jago in 1988, is a contingency theory that provides guidelines for leaders to determine the level of subordinate involvement in decision-making based on the characteristics of the situation. Here's a summary: 1. Background: The model is rooted in the idea that the effectiveness of decision procedures depends on the situation, and leaders should choose the most appropriate approach accordingly. 2. Decision Procedures: The model identifies five decision procedures: o Autocratic I (AI): The leader decides without consulting subordinates. o Autocratic II (AII): The leader gathers information from subordinates but makes the final decision. o Consultative I (CI): The leader shares the problem with individual subordinates and considers their input before making the decision. o Consultative II (CII): The leader involves a group of subordinates in discussing the problem before making the decision. o Group (GII): The leader shares the problem with the group, and the decision reflects consensus 3. Situational Factors: The model considers factors such as the amount of information held by the leader and subordinates, the likelihood of subordinates accepting an autocratic decision, and the level of structure in the decision problem. 4. Decision Rules: The model provides rules to help leaders determine the appropriateness of a decision procedure based on the specific circumstances. For example, if subordinates possess relevant information that the leader lacks, an autocratic decision may not be appropriate. 5. Updates: Vroom and Jago (1988) updated the model, considering additional factors such as time constraints and geographical dispersion of subordinates. 6. Empirical Support and Criticisms: The model has received some empirical support but has conceptual weaknesses and covers a relatively small aspect of leadership. Critics argue that it does not address all aspects of leadership and may oversimplify decision- making processes. 7. Normative Nature: The model is normative, prescribing rules for leaders to follow in different circumstances to make optimal decisions. In essence, the Normative Decision-Making Model guides leaders in selecting the most effective decision-making approach based on the characteristics of the situation, providing a set of rules to optimize decision quality and acceptance. b) Path-Goal Theory: The most influential and complete contingency theory to date is probably House’s path–goal theory of leadership This dyadic theory of supervision describes how formally appointed superiors affect the motivation and satisfaction of subordinates. House and Mitchell advanced two general propositions: (1) leader behavior is acceptable and satisfying to subordinates to the extent that subordinates see such behavior as either an immediate source of or instrumental to future satisfaction; (2) leader behavior is motivational (i.e., increases follower effort) to the extent that such behavior makes follower need satisfaction contingent on effective performance and to the extent that such behavior complements the environment of subordinates by providing guidance, support, and rewards necessary for effective performance. House and Mitchell specify four types of leader behavior: directive path-goal clarifying behavior, supportive leader behavior, participative leader behavior and achievement- oriented behavior. Proposed eTects of leader behavior include subordinate motivation, satisfaction, and performance. Task and subordinate characteristics are treated as moderator variables Summary Situational leadership theories attempt to describe how leader behaviour and situations best interact Fiedler’s model suggests leaders should adapt the work situation to their style. Path-goal theory suggests appropriate behaviours should be selected for the situation Support for these theories is limited This passage discusses alternative approaches to studying leadership, addressing dissatisfaction with inconsistent research ﬁndings on contingency models. The remedies proposed by researchers include: Replace leader style measures with measures of reward and punishment: Shift focus from leadership style to the leader's use of reward and punishment. Research suggests that leaders rewarding good performance lead to better subordinates' performance and satisfaction. Di1erentiate between subordinates: Emphasize individual diTerences among subordinates rather than treating them as interchangeable. Graen and colleagues' work on Vertical Dyad Linkage and Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) highlights the importance of dyadic exchanges between leaders and individual subordinates. Review circumstances that call for leadership: Introduce the substitutes for leadership approach, suggesting that various situational variables can substitute for, neutralize, or enhance the eTects of leader behavior. Howell and Dorfman's (1981) research questions the empirical support for this model. Examine leaders' perceptions of subordinates: Leaders are viewed as information processors, attributing subordinates' performance to either the subordinates themselves or external circumstances. Attribution processes play a signiﬁcant role in leaders' strategies for inﬂuencing subordinates. Reexamine the basis of subordinates' perceptions of leaders: Implicit leadership theories (ILTs) are personal constructs individuals use to make judgments about leadership. ILTs can inﬂuence perceptions of actual leader behavior and play a role in organizational research. Focus on the use of power and inﬂuence tactics: Inﬂuence over followers is considered essential to leadership. Power sources, including reward, coercive, legitimate, referent, expert power, and control over information, are identiﬁed. Inﬂuence tactics such as pressure, exchange, coalition, legitimating, rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, ingratiation, and personal appeals are explored. The passage emphasizes the importance of considering alternative perspectives and methodologies, such as power and inﬂuence tactics, in studying leadership beyond traditional contingency models. New Leadership Terms used to describe these ‘new leaders’ include: transformational, charismatic, ‘leaders’ (as opposed to managers), transforming, inspirational, visionary, or value-based. 1. The concept of charisma House, four personal characteristics of the leader contribute to charismatic leadership: dominance, self-conﬁdence, need for inﬂuence, and a strong conviction of the integrity of one’s own beliefs According to Conger and Kanungo, charismatic leaders can be distinguished from no charismatic leaders, by: o Their sensitivity to environmental constraints and followers needs and their ability to identify deficiencies in the status quo o Their formulation of an idealized vision and extensive use of articulation and impression management skills o Their use of innovative and unconventional means for achieving their vision and their use of personal power to influence followers Charisma is a key component of transformational and inspirational leadership theories, characterized by a leader's ability to inspire devotion and emotional attachment among followers. Charismatic leaders often exhibit: 1. Idealized Influence: Acting as role models with high ethical standards and a compelling vision. 2. Inspirational Motivation: Communicating a clear, optimistic vision that energizes followers. 3. Emotional Appeal: Using their presence and communication skills to create a sense of shared purpose and confidence. Charismatic leadership is particularly impactful when leaders are perceived as exemplars of group values and capable of addressing significant challenges or uncertainties 2. Transactional and Transformational Leadership Burns (1978) argues that transactional leadership entails an exchange between leader and follower. Followers receive certain valued outcomes (e.g., wages, prestige) when they act according to the leader’s wishes. According to Burns the exchange can be economic, political, or psychological in nature. Bass (1985) notes that leadership in (organizational) research has generally been conceptualized as a cost–benefit exchange process. Transactional and transformational leadership are two distinct styles of leadership, each with its own set of characteristics, behaviors, and approaches. Key differences between the two: 1) Focus on Goals: Transactional Leadership: This style is more focused on maintaining stability and achieving specific, predetermined objectives. Leaders using transactional leadership often rely on rewards and punishments to motivate their followers. They emphasize the importance of clear expectations, performance standards, and the exchange of rewards for meeting those standards. Transformational Leadership: This style is more concerned with inspiring and motivating followers to go beyond their self-interest for the good of the team or organization. Transformational leaders focus on a shared vision and work to create a sense of purpose and commitment among their followers. 2) Motivational Approach: Transactional Leadership: Motivation is often extrinsic, based on rewards and punishments. It involves a transaction or exchange between the leader and the follower. Transformational Leadership: Motivation is intrinsic and comes from a deep commitment to the shared vision and values. Transformational leaders inspire and stimulate their followers, fostering a sense of ownership and higher-level engagement. 3) Leadership Style: Transactional Leadership: Transactional leaders are more likely to use a "management by exception" approach, intervening only when standards are not met. They focus on the day-to-day operations and maintaining the status quo. Transformational Leadership: Transformational leaders are visionary and charismatic. They seek to bring about significant change, encourage innovation, and empower their followers to reach their full potential. 4) Communication: Transactional Leadership: Communication tends to be straightforward and task- oriented, emphasizing the exchange of information related to specific goals. Transformational Leadership: Communication is more inspirational and focused on the broader vision. Transformational leaders use storytelling and emotional appeal to convey the importance of the shared mission. 5) Relationship with Followers: Transactional Leadership: The relationship is based on a clear structure of rewards and punishments. It's more transactional and less personal. Transformational Leadership: The relationship is often characterized by trust, admiration, and a strong emotional bond. Transformational leaders build a sense of community and shared identity. In summary, while transactional leadership is concerned with the day-to-day operations and achieving specific goals through a system of rewards and punishments, transformational leadership is focused on inspiring and motivating followers to exceed their own expectations and work towards a shared, meaningful vision Emerging Leadership Models a) Authentic leadership Authentic leadership is described as "a pattern of transparent and ethical leader behavior that encourages openness in sharing information needed to make decisions while accepting followers’ inputs." The emergence of authentic leadership development followed discussions on transformational leadership. The concept addresses the distinction between pseudo and authentic transformational leaders. Luthans and Avolio aimed to integrate positive organizational behavior with life-span leadership development, drawing from positive psychology theories like Fredrickson's broaden-and-build theory. Combines self-awareness, internalized moral perspective, relational transparency, and balanced decision-making. Leaders encourage ethical and open practices, enhancing trust and performance b) Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Highlights unique dyadic relationships between leaders and followers: o High-LMX relationships: Socially driven, based on trust and mutual obligations (feelings of mutual obligation and reciprocity which make the relationships more social in nature) o Low-LMX relationships: Transactional and formal (economic exchange based on formally agreed on, immediate and balanced reciprocation of tangible assets) c) Servant Leadership (Greenleaf) Focuses on prioritizing followers' needs, fostering growth, and promoting collective well-being. Ten characteristics of a servant leader: listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment, and building community Categorize servant leadership into functional attributes (vision, honestly, trustworthiness) and accompany attributes (good communication, listening, credibility) Overlaps with transformational leadership d) Cross-cultural leadership Explores leadership across diverse cultures, emphasizing adaptability and sensitivity to cultural norms (e.g., Project GLOBE). e) Shared and distributed leadership Views leadership as a collective process, distributed among team members rather than centralized in a single individual. Contemporary Challenges in Leadership Despite signiﬁcant progress, several issues persist: Measurement inconsistencies: DiTiculty in deﬁning and quantifying leadership eTectiveness. Causality dilemmas: Determining whether leaders inﬂuence outcomes or vice versa. Group-level biases: Overreliance on group averages instead of individual assessments. Situational neglect: InsuTicient integration of contextual factors. To address these, modern research emphasizes: Cognitive approaches: Exploring how leaders process information and develop self-concepts. Follower perceptions: Understanding how followers view and respond to leaders. Advanced methodologies: Utilizing experiments and statistical controls for better insights. Future Directions in Leadership Research The ﬁeld is evolving toward: 1. Universal Leadership Development: Establishing evidence-based frameworks that incorporate cognitive and emotional dimensions. 2. Global and Virtual Leadership: Adapting leadership to cross-cultural and digital contexts. 3. Emphasis on Ethical Leadership: Addressing moral and social responsibilities in leadership practices. Summary Provide useful and meaningful perspective onto leadership Some capture some aspects better than others Somewhat complement each other Some overlap theoretically and conceptually Some support for earlier theorizing (boundary conditions/ contingency ideas

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