Foundations for Business Successes (1) PDF

Chapter 2: Personality, Attitudes, and Work Behaviours Personality - person's relatively stable feelings, thoughts, and behavioural patterns Big five personality traits Openness - curious, original, intellectual, creative, open to new ideas Conscientiousness - organised, systematic, punctua...

Chapter 2: Personality, Attitudes, and Work Behaviours Personality - person's relatively stable feelings, thoughts, and behavioural patterns Big five personality traits Openness - curious, original, intellectual, creative, open to new ideas Conscientiousness - organised, systematic, punctual, achievement oriented, dependable Extraversion - outgoing, talkative, sociable, enjoys being in social situations Agreeableness - affable, tolerant, sensitive, trusting, kind, warm Neuroticism - anxious, irritable, temperamental, moody Openness Individuals with high openness often flourish in environments that demand flexibility and continuous learning. They are typically eager to acquire new skills and excel in training settings. Their open-mindedness encourages them to actively seek information and feedback, facilitating a quicker adjustment to new jobs and organisations. People with high openness are generally more adaptable to change and contribute positively to teams facing unexpected shifts in their tasks. They are also more likely to pursue entrepreneurship. While openness is generally considered a desirable trait, a potential downside is that highly open individuals may experience boredom or impatience with routine tasks Conscientiousness This trait consistently predicts strong performance across a wide range of occupations and jobs. Recruiters highly value conscientiousness in potential employees, and highly conscientious applicants generally perform well in interviews. Once hired, conscientious individuals tend to exhibit several positive work behaviours Conscientiousness is linked to career success and career satisfaction over time. Individuals with high conscientiousness are also more likely to start their own businesses, and their companies tend to have higher survival rates. A possible drawback of high conscientiousness is a tendency to focus on details rather than the bigger picture Extraversion Individuals with high extraversion thrive in social situations and often excel in roles that involve sales and management. Their strong social skills contribute to their effectiveness as leaders, particularly in demonstrating inspirational leadership behaviours. Extraverts tend to perform well in job interviews, partly due to their natural social aptitude and partly due to their proactive use of their social networks to prepare for interviews. They also adjust to new jobs more easily than introverts because they actively seek information and feedback, quickly building relationships within the new environment. Studies show that extraverts tend to report higher levels of happiness at work, likely stemming from the relationships they cultivate and their smoother integration into new jobs. Roles that lack opportunities for social interaction might not be a good fit for extraverts. Additionally, while generally positive, extraverts may exhibit some behaviours that are not ideal for employers, such as higher absenteeism rates, potentially due to their tendency to prioritise social activities or the needs of their friends. Agreeableness Agreeable people tend to exhibit consistent helping behaviour at work, regardless of their mood. They are less likely to retaliate when treated unfairly, possibly due to their capacity for empathy and willingness to give others the benefit of the doubt. These individuals can be valuable assets to teams and effective leaders because they foster a fair and positive work environment. Conversely, individuals low in agreeableness are less likely to engage in such positive behaviours and may even exhibit negative behaviours, such as unexpectedly quitting their jobs in response to conflict. Neuroticism Individuals with high neuroticism often struggle with emotional regulation and may frequently experience stress and depression. This can lead to several challenges in the workplace If they attain management positions, they tend to cultivate an unfair work climate High neuroticism is also associated with lower levels of career success in terms of income and occupational status Individuals with low neuroticism, often described as having a positive affective disposition, experience positive moods more frequently than negative ones. They tend to report higher job satisfaction and stronger organisational commitment. This suggests that low neuroticism can be a significant advantage in the workplace. Other personalities Self monitoring - describes an individual's ability to regulate their actions and presentation in social situations Proactive personality - describes a person's tendency to take initiative to fix problems, make changes, and solve problems Self esteem - relates to a person's overall positive feelings about themselves. Self-efficacy - is the belief in one's capability to successfully perform a specific task Self monitoring People with high self-monitoring are often referred to as "social chameleons", as they can adapt their behaviour to fit the demands of different social contexts. In contrast, those with low self-monitoring tend to behave more consistently with their internal feelings, regardless of the social setting. High self-monitors are adept at impression management, which can benefit them in the workplace, leading to higher performance ratings and greater likelihood of emerging as leaders. Their impression management skills can also make them effective at influencing others and accomplishing tasks. As managers, they may not provide accurate performance feedback to their employees, potentially to avoid confrontation and preserve their desired image. This avoidance could hinder their ability to carry out the controlling function effectively Proactive personality Proactive personality is linked to several positive outcomes in the workplace An eagerness to learn and develop their skills Proactive personality is not always beneficial and can even be a liability in certain circumstances. If a proactive individual is perceived as overly pushy, attempts to change things others are not willing to let go of, or uses their initiative to make decisions that are not in the company's best interests, their proactivity can become problematic. The success of a proactive person hinges on their understanding of the company's core values, their job competence, and their ability to accurately assess the demands of different situations. Self-esteem Those with high self-esteem tend to have a positive self-image, confidence, and self-respect. Conversely, individuals with low self-esteem often experience self-doubt and question their worth. High self-esteem is associated with higher levels of job satisfaction and job performance. People with low self-esteem may gravitate towards positions where they are less visible, such as large companies.  Managing employees with low self-esteem can be challenging, as they may misinterpret negative feedback intended for performance improvement as a personal attack on their value. Effectively managing these individuals requires tact and a focus on providing positive feedback when addressing performance issues Self-efficacy Self-efficacy tends to be job-specific. Individuals can also have a general sense of self-efficacy, a belief that they are likely to succeed in any task they undertake. Self-efficacy is linked to job performance, potentially because people with high self-efficacy set higher goals for themselves and demonstrate greater commitment to achieving those goals. They are also less likely to procrastinate. High self-efficacy in academics is correlated with better grades and higher persistence in studies. Empowering employees by giving them opportunities to test their skills and demonstrate their capabilities Values - people’s stable life goals, reflecting what is most important to them Perception - the process by which individuals detect and interpret environmental stimuli Visual perception - the process through which individuals detect and interpret stimuli in their environment. Visual perception is the specific application of this process to visual stimuli. Biases in Visual Perception Extrapolation and Filling in Gaps: We tend to extrapolate from limited visual information, effectively 'filling in the gaps' to create a complete picture. For instance, in the example provided in the sources, we perceive a white triangle in the centre of an image even though it isn't actually there. Similarly, we can perceive whole objects even when they are partially obscured. This tendency to extrapolate can also contribute to inaccuracies in memory, particularly when recalling events or conversations, as we might unconsciously fill in missing details with information that aligns with our existing beliefs or opinions. Contrast and Comparison: Our visual perception can also be influenced by the context in which we view objects. We tend to compare and contrast objects with each other, which can alter our perception of their size or other characteristics. For example, a circle surrounded by smaller circles might appear larger than an identical circle surrounded by larger circles. This tendency to make comparisons can affect our perceptions in the  workplace as well, such as influencing our satisfaction with our office space or our assessment of a colleague's workload. Impact of Biases on Behaviour: The sources caution that our visual perception is not always reliable, and managers should be aware of the potential for biases. Relying solely on visual observations without considering other information or potential biases can lead to inaccurate judgments about employees and situations. Self-perception - how individuals view and understand themselves, encompassing their assessment of their own performance, capabilities, and characteristics. It involves forming opinions and beliefs about one's own nature and qualities. Biases in Self-Perception Self-Enhancement Bias: This bias describes the tendency to overestimate our performance and capabilities, viewing ourselves more positively than others might. People with narcissistic personalities are particularly susceptible to this bias, although it exists to varying degrees in many individuals. This bias can have consequences in the workplace. For example, someone with a strong self-enhancement bias might not understand why they aren't being promoted or rewarded despite believing they are exceeding expectations. Self-Effacement Bias: Also known as modesty bias, this is the opposite of self-enhancement bias. It involves underestimating our performance and capabilities and viewing ourselves more negatively than is warranted. Individuals with low self-esteem might be more prone to this bias. In a workplace setting, this bias can lead to a lack of confidence and excessive self-blame for failures. False Consensus Error: This error refers to the tendency to overestimate how similar our beliefs, opinions, and behaviours are to others. We often assume that our quirks and habits are shared by more people than is actually the case. This can be problematic in organisations, as it can lead to a normalisation of potentially unethical or even illegal behaviours. For example, an employee might believe that taking office supplies home is a common practice, leading them to engage in this behaviour without recognising its ethical implications. Social perception - the process through which we form impressions of, and draw inferences about, others. It involves observing, interpreting, and understanding the behaviours, motivations, and intentions of individuals in our social world. This process shapes our interactions, relationships, and navigation of social situations. Biases in Social Perception: Stereotypes: Cognitive Shortcuts with Potential for Bias: The sources describe stereotypes as generalisations about the traits and characteristics of particular groups. They function as mental shortcuts that help us quickly categorise people based on group affiliation, but they can result in inaccurate and prejudiced judgments about individuals.  While stereotypes can be positive, negative, or neutral, even seemingly positive stereotypes can be limiting and unfair by preventing us from seeing individuals as unique and complex. Perpetuating Stereotypes: How Biases Reinforce Inaccurate Beliefs: Several cognitive biases contribute to the persistence of stereotypes: Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Shaping Behaviour to Confirm Expectations: As discussed in our conversation history, the self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when our pre-existing beliefs about someone influence our behaviour towards them in a way that elicits actions confirming the stereotype. For example, if a manager believes that older employees are resistant to change, they might be less likely to involve them in new projects, leading to a lack of opportunity for those employees to demonstrate their adaptability, thus reinforcing the manager's initial stereotype. Selective Perception: Filtering Information to Support Our Views: Our tendency for selective perception can reinforce stereotypes by making us more attentive to information that supports our existing beliefs while overlooking contradictory evidence. This selective attention can lead to a skewed perception of reality. For instance, a recruiter who believes that graduates from certain universities are more competent might be more likely to remember the successful candidates from those institutions while forgetting about the less successful ones, perpetuating the stereotype even if it's not statistically accurate. Subtyping and Discounting: Protecting Stereotypes from Contradictory Evidence: Even when confronted with evidence challenging our stereotypes, we may use strategies to maintain them: ○ Subtyping: Creating Exceptions That Don't Threaten the Rule: Subtyping involves creating subcategories within a stereotyped group to accommodate individuals who deviate from the overall stereotype. This allows us to preserve the stereotype while acknowledging exceptions, protecting our pre-existing beliefs from being completely invalidated. For example, if someone believes that all politicians are dishonest, they might create a subtype for 'reformist politicians' who are perceived as more ethical, thus preserving their general negative view of politicians while accounting for exceptions. ○ Discounting: Dismissing Counter-Evidence as Unreliable: Discounting involves dismissing information contradicting our stereotypes as unreliable or atypical, allowing us to hold onto our beliefs without having to grapple with challenging evidence. For example, someone who believes that members of a particular political party are all fiscally irresponsible might dismiss evidence of a politician from that party implementing sound economic policies as an attempt to win votes, rather than reconsidering their stereotype. First Impressions: The Enduring Impact of Early Judgments: The sources note that first impressions are particularly influential in shaping our perceptions of others. Our initial  judgments tend to persist and can be surprisingly resistant to change, even when presented with contradictory information. This is partly attributed to the 'halo effect', where an initial positive or negative impression colours how we interpret subsequent behaviours. This highlights the significance of making a positive first impression, especially in professional contexts like job interviews, as it can leave a lasting impact on how we are perceived. Attitude - our opinions, beliefs, and feelings about aspects of our environment Job satisfaction - feelings people have towards their job Organisational commitment - emotional attachment people have toward the company they work for Person organisation fit - the degree to which a person's personality, values, goals and other characteristics match of those of the organisation Person-job fit - the degree to which a person’s knowledge, skills, other abilities and other characteristics match the job demand Job performance - level to which an employee successfully fulfils the factors included in the job descriptions Key Predictors of Job Performance: General Mental Ability (g): General mental ability, often referred to as intelligence or cognitive ability, is a strong predictor of job performance across many occupations. It encompasses various cognitive skills such as reasoning, verbal and numerical abilities, and analytical skills. The importance of "g" is particularly pronounced in complex jobs requiring high levels of cognitive processing. Organisational Justice and Interpersonal Relationships: Fairness in the workplace, supportive relationships with managers, and trust among colleagues are all linked to higher job performance. When employees feel valued and treated fairly, they are more likely to reciprocate with increased effort and performance. Stress Levels: Excessive stress can negatively impact job performance. Stressors like role ambiguity, role conflict, and work-life balance issues can deplete mental energy and hinder focus, leading to decreased performance. Work Attitudes (Job Satisfaction): While the correlation is not as strong as some might expect, there is a moderate positive relationship between job satisfaction and job performance. Happier workers tend to be more engaged and motivated, which can contribute to better performance. This link is stronger in jobs requiring higher levels of cognitive skills and creativity. Personality (Conscientiousness): Individuals high in conscientiousness—organised, reliable, and goal-oriented—tend to have better job performance. Organisational citizenship behaviours (OCBs) - voluntary actions taken by employees that go beyond their formal job requirements but contribute to the overall well-being and effectiveness of the organisation. Key Predictors of OCBs: Organisational Justice and Interpersonal Relationships: Just like with job performance, perceptions of fairness, a supportive work environment, good relationships with managers and coworkers, and trust are strong predictors of OCBs. Employees who feel valued and respected are more likely to engage in behaviours that benefit the organisation. Personality (Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Low Neuroticism): Individuals high in agreeableness (cooperative and helpful), conscientiousness (responsible and organised), and low in Neuroticism (emotionally stable) are more likely to exhibit OCBs. Work Attitudes: Employees with positive work attitudes, high job satisfaction, and strong organisational commitment are more inclined to go the extra mile and engage in OCBs. Age: Older employees, potentially due to their greater experience and wisdom, tend to engage in more OCBs. Absenteeism - unplanned absences from work. It's a costly issue for organisations due to disruptions in workflow, the need for last-minute replacements, and potential overtime costs. Causes of Absenteeism: Health Reasons: Illness, injuries, and chronic health conditions are major contributors to absenteeism. Organisations can address this through wellness programmes, flexible work arrangements, and supportive leave policies. Work/Life Balance: Absences related to family responsibilities, personal appointments, and other life events are common. Organisations can help employees manage work/life demands through flexible scheduling, paid time off, and supportive policies. Poor Work Attitudes (Job Dissatisfaction): Absenteeism can be a form of work withdrawal stemming from dissatisfaction with the job, the organisation, or work relationships. Addressing underlying causes of dissatisfaction is key to reducing this type of absenteeism. Age: Younger workers tend to have higher absenteeism rates compared to older workers. Turnover - when an employee leaves the organisation, either voluntarily or involuntarily. Factors Influencing Turnover: Performance Levels: Low performers are more likely to leave, either voluntarily or through termination. Work Attitudes (Job Satisfaction, Organisational Commitment): Dissatisfied and uncommitted employees are more likely to seek opportunities elsewhere. Creating a positive and supportive work environment can enhance retention.  Stress Levels: High levels of work-related stress can lead to burnout and increase the likelihood of turnover. Personality (Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Emotional Stability): Employees high in conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability tend to have lower turnover rates. Age and Tenure: Younger and less tenured employees are more likely to leave their jobs.